Question
Biology
LabPaq / Published by: Hands-On Labs, Inc.
sales@HOLscience.com / www.HOLscience.com / Toll Free 866.206.0773
A laboratory Manual of Small-Scale Experiments
for the independent Study of
general Biology
50-0059-BK-02
LabPaq® is a registered trademark of Hands-On Labs, Inc. (HOL). The LabPaq referenced in
this manual is produced by Hands-On Labs, Inc. which holds and reserves all copyrights on
the intellectual properties associated with the LabPaq’s unique design, assembly, and learning
experiences. The laboratory manual included with a LabPaq is intended for the sole use by that
LabPaq’s original purchaser and may not be reused without a LabPaq or by others without the
specific written consent of HOL. No portion of any LabPaq manual’s materials may be
reproduced, transmitted or distributed to others in any manner, nor may be downloaded to any
public or privately shared systems or servers without the express written consent of HOL. No
changes may be made in any LabPaq materials without the express written consent of HOL. HOL
has invested years of research and development into these materials, reserves all rights related
to them, and retains the right to impose substantial penalties for any misuse.
Published by:
Hands-On Labs, Inc.
3880 S. Windermere St.
Englewood, CO 80110
Phone: Denver Area: 303-679-6252
Toll-free, Long-distance: 866-206-0773
www.HOLscience.com
e-mail: info@HOLscience.com
Printed in the United States of America.
The experiments in this manual have been and may be conducted in a regular formal laboratory
or classroom setting with the users providing their own equipment and supplies. However, this
manual was especially written for the benefit of the independent study of students who do not
have convenient access to such facilities. It allows them to perform college and advanced high
school level experiments at home or elsewhere by using a LabPaq, a collection of experimental
equipment and supplies specifically packaged to accompany this manual.
Use of this manual and authorization to perform any of its experiments is expressly conditioned
upon the user reading, understanding and agreeing to fully abide by all the safety precautions
contained herein.
Although the author and publisher have exhaustively researched many sources to ensure
the accuracy and completeness of the information contained in this manual, we assume no
responsibility for errors, inaccuracies, omissions or any other inconsistency herein. Any slight of
people, organizations, materials, or products is unintentional.
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Table of Contents
5
To the instructor
To the Student
How to Perform an Experiment
9
Safety Concerns
11
Science lab Safety Reinforcement Agreement
Experiments
14
Research and The Scientific Method
37
Microscopy and the Metric System
75
Basic Chemistry for Investigating Living Systems
105
Cell Structure and Function: Cell Types and Transport
131
Cell Structure and Function: Tonicity and pH
153
Enzymes
183
Photosynthesis and Respiration
215
Mitosis and Meiosis
238
Genetic Inheritance
266
Human Genetics
285
The Properties of Water
APPENDiX
321
laboratory Equipment and Techniques
323
Potential Laboratory Hazards
326
Material Safety Data Sheets
328
How to Write Lab Notes and Lab Reports
334
laboratory Drawings
336
Final Cleanup Instructions
338
Using Statistics
342
The T-Test
348
The Chi-Square Test
351
Preparing a Water Bath
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Introduct
To the instructor
As an increasing number of students embrace online and independent-study courses, laboratory
experiences must remain an integral part of science education. This lab manual’s author and
publisher are science educators who welcome electronic technology as an effective tool to
expand and enhance instruction. However, technology can neither duplicate nor replace
learning experiences afforded to students through traditional hands-on laboratory and field
activities. This does not mean that some experiments cannot or should not be replaced or
reinforced by computer simulations; but any course of science study must also provide sufficient
hands-on laboratory and field experiences to:
● Engage students in open-ended, investigative processes by using scientific problem solving.
● Provide application of concepts students have seen in their study materials, which reinforce
and clarify scientific principles and concepts.
● Involve multiple senses in three-dimensional rather than two-dimensional learning
experiences that are important for greater retention of concepts and for accommodation of
different learning styles.
● Stimulate students to understand the nature of science including its unpredictability and
complexity.
● Provide opportunities to engage in collaborative work and to model scientific attitudes and
behavior.
● Develop mastery of techniques and skills needed for potential science, engineering, and
technology careers.
The knowledge gained from science courses with strong laboratory components enables
students to understand, in practical and concrete ways, their own physical makeup, the
functioning of the natural world around them, and contemporary scientific and environmental
issues. It is only by maintaining hands-on laboratory experiences in our curricula that the
brightest and most promising students will be stimulated to learn scientific concepts and avoid
being turned-off by lecture- and textbook-only approaches. Physical experimentation may offer
some students their only opportunity to experience a science laboratory environment. All
students – as potential voters, parents, teachers, leaders, and informed citizens – will benefit
from a well-rounded education that includes science laboratory experiences when it is time for
them to make sound decisions affecting the future of their country and the world.
This lab manual can be used by all students, regardless of the laboratory facilities available to
them. The experiments are based on the principles of micro-scale science which have been
successfully used in campus laboratories for decades. LabPaq’s micro-scale experiments can also
be performed at home, in a dorm room, or at a small learning center that lacks a formal
laboratory.
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To the Student
Science is a way of learning about our natural world and how it works by testing ideas and
making observations. Learning about the characteristics of the natural world and how those
characteristics change and interact with each other makes it easier to understand ourselves and
our physical environment. Also, it helps us make the multitude of personal and global decisions
that affect our lives and our planet. Science credits are impressive on an academic transcript
and your science
knowledge may create some unique job opportunities.
What are Micro-Scale Experiments?
You may be among the growing number of students to take a full-credit, laboratory science
course through independent study, due to the development and perfection of micro-scale and
small- scale experimentation techniques over the past half century. While experimentation on
any scale is foundational to fully understanding science concepts, science courses in the past
have required experimentation to be performed in the campus laboratory due to the potential
hazards inherent in traditional experimentation.
Potentialhazards, increasingchemical, specimen, andscienceequipmentcosts, andenvironmental
concerns made high schools, colleges, and universities reexamine the traditional laboratory
methods used to teach science. Scientists began to scale down the quantities of materials and
the size of equipment used in experiments and found reaction results remained unchanged.
Over time, more and more traditional science experiments were redesigned to be performed on
micro and small scales. Educational institutions eventually recognized that the scientific
reaction, not the size of the reaction, facilitates learning. Successive comparative assessments
have proven that students’ learning is not impaired by studying small-sized reactions. Many
assessments even suggest that science learning is enhanced by small-scale experimentation.
In the mid-1990s, Dr. Peter Jeschofnig of Colorado Mountain College, pioneered the
development of LabPaqs: academically aligned, small-scale experiments that can be performed
at home. Hands-On Labs, Inc. has subsequently proven that students can perform LabPaq’s
rigorous science experiments at home and still achieve an equivalent, if not higher, level of
learning than their campus-based peers.
How to Perform an Experiment
Although each experiment is different, the process of preparing, performing, and recording an
experiment is essentially the same.
Choose the Right Place for Your Home Laboratory: The best place to perform at-home
experiments will be determined by the nature of the individual experiments. However, this
place is usually an uncluttered room where a door can be closed to keep out children and pets;
a window or door can be opened for fresh air, ventilation, and fume exhaust; there is a source
of running water for fire suppression and cleanup; and there is a counter or tabletop work
surface. A kitchen usually meets all these requirements. Sometimes the bathroom works too,
but it can be cramped and subject to interruptions.
Review each experiment before starting any work to help you select the most appropriate work
area. Because some of the equipment and supplies in your LabPaq may pose dangers to small
children and animals, always keep safety in mind when selecting a work area, and always
choose an area where you cannot be disturbed by children or pets.
Use a Lab Partner: While the experiments in the LabPaq can be performed independently, it is
often fun and useful to have a lab partner to discuss ideas with, help take measurements, and
reinforce your learning process. Whether your partner is a parent, spouse, sibling, or friend, you
will have to explain what you are doing, and in the process of teaching another, you will better
teach yourself. Always review your experiments several days ahead of time so you have time to
line up a partner if needed.
Read the Entire Experiment before You Start: Knowing what you are going to do before you do it
will help you organize your work and be more effective and efficient.
Review Basic Safety: Before beginning work on any experiment, reread the lab manual’s safety
sections, try to foresee any potential hazards, and take appropriate steps to prevent safety
problems.
Organize Your Work Space, Equipment, and Materials: It is hard to organize your thoughts in
a disorganized environment. Assemble all required equipment and supplies before you begin
working.
Outline Your Lab Notes: Outline the information needed for your Lab Notes and set up any
required data tables before the experiment, to make it easier to enter observations and results
as they occur. LabPaq CDs normally include a Report Assistant containing .rtf files of each
experiment’s questions and data tables. These files can be copied and pasted into your Lab
Notes to facilitate your compilation of data and text information.
Perform the Experiment According to Instructions: Follow all directions precisely in sequential
order. This is not the time to be creative. Do not attempt to improvise your own procedures!
Think About What You Are Doing: Stop and give yourself time to reflect on what has happened
in your experiment. What changes occurred? Why? What do they mean? How do they relate to
the real world of science? This step can be the most fun and often creates “light bulb”
experiences of understanding.
Cleanup: Always clean your laboratory space and laboratory equipment immediately after use.
Wipe down all work surfaces that may have been exposed to chemicals or dissection specimens.
Blot any unused chemicals with a paper towel or flush them down the sink with generous
amounts of water. Wrap dissection specimens in newspaper and plastic and place them in a
sealed garbage can. Discard used pipets and other waste in your normal trash. Return cleaned
equipment and supplies to their LabPaq box and store the box out of reach of children and pets.
Complete Your Work: Complete your Lab Notes, answer the required questions, and prepare
your Lab Report. If you have properly followed all the above steps, the conclusion will be easy.
NOTE: The Appendix section of this manual contains valuable
information regarding equipment and techniques specific to
the discipline you are studying. Please take the time to review
this section before beginning experimentation.
Safety Concerns
CAUTION for Women:
If you are pregnant or could be pregnant, you should seek advice from your
personal physician before doing any type of science experimentation.
You, as a responsible science student and researcher, are solely responsible for safely storing
and using your LabPaq materials and for conducting your experiments in a safe and responsible
manner.
Items in your LabPaq can be especially dangerous to children and pets, so the LabPaq should
always be kept safely stored out of their reach. The LabPaq may contain acids or other
chemicals that can cause burns if mishandled plus serious illness and/or death if consumed.
Many LabPaq items are made of glass and/or have sharp edges that pose potential risks for cuts
and scratches. While LabPaq thermometers do not contain mercury, they might still break and
cause injury. LabPaqs contain small items and materials that could cause choking, injury, or
death if misused.
Experimentation may require you to climb, push, pull, spin, and whirl. While these activities are
not necessarily dangerous, they can pose hazards which means you should always undertake
these activities cautiously and with consideration for your surroundings. If you need to climb
to take measurements, make sure any stool, chair, or ladder you use is sturdy and take ample
precautions to prevent falls. It is wise to have a partner help keep you stable when you must
climb. Be especially aware of experimental equipment that you must put in motion, and act
cautiously to ensure that items cannot go astray and cause injury to people or property.
If you or anyone accidentally consumes or otherwise comes into contact with a substance that
could be toxic or cannot be easily washed away, immediately call:
The National Poison Control Center: 1-800-222-1222
Your eyesight is precious and should be protected against chemical spills or splashes as well as
flying objects and debris. Always wear safety goggles when working with chemicals of any kind
and when working with non-chemical objects that could possibly fly into your eyes.
Since chemicals, dirt, and germs are often involved in laboratory experiments, you should never
eat or smoke in your laboratory area. Protect your body by keeping your hair tied back from
your face and by wearing old clothing that fully covers your arms, legs, and feet.
You also need to protect your home furnishings from damage during your experimentation.
Cover your work surface with plastic or paper towels when appropriate to prevent ruining
furniture and to aid in cleanup.
The best safety tools you have are your own mind and intellectual ability to think and plan. After
previewing each experiment, carefully think about what safety precautions you need to take to
experiment safely, and then take them!
Since it is impossible to control students’ use of this lab manual and related LabPaqs or
students’ work environments, the author(s) of this lab manual, the instructors and institutions
that adopt it, and Hands-On Labs, Inc. – the publisher of the lab manual and the producer of
LabPaqs – authorize the use of these educational products only on the express condition that
the purchasers and users accept full and complete responsibility for all and any liability related
to their use of same. Additional terms authorizing the use of a LabPaq are contained in its
Purchase Agreement available at www.HOLscience.com.
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Science lab Safety Reinforcement Agreement
Any type of science experimentation involves potential hazards, and unforeseen risks may exist.
The need to prevent injuries and accidents cannot be overemphasized!
Use of this lab manual and any LabPaqs are expressly conditioned upon your agreement to
follow all safety precautions and accept full responsibility for your actions.
Study the safety section of this lab manual until you can honestly state the following:
Before beginning an experiment, I will first read all directions and then assemble and
organize all required equipment and supplies.
I will select a work area that is inaccessible to children and pets while experiments are in
progress. I will not leave experiments unattended and I will not leave my work area while
a chemical equipment is set up unless the room is locked.
To avoid the potential for accidents, I will clear my home laboratory workspace of all nonlaboratory items before setting up equipment and supplies for my experiments.
I will never attempt an experiment until I fully understand it. If in doubt about any part of
an experiment, I will first speak with my instructor before proceeding.
I will wear safety goggles when working with chemicals or items that can get into my eyes.
I know that except for water, most solvents, such as toluene, alcohols, acetone, ethers,
and ethyl acetate are highly flammable and should never be used near an open flame.
I know that the heat created when water is added to concentrated acids is sufficient to
cause spattering. When preparing dilute acid solutions, I will always add the acid to the
water – rather than the water to the acid – while slowly stirring the mixture.
I know it is wise to wear rubber gloves and goggles when handling acids and other
dangerous chemicals; I should neutralize acid spills with sodium bicarbonate; and I
should wash acid spilled on skin or clothes immediately with plenty of cold water.
I know that many chemicals produce toxic fumes and that cautious procedures should be
used when smelling any chemical. When I wish to smell a chemical, I will never hold it
directly under my nose, but will use my hand to waft vapors toward my nose.
I will always handle glassware with respect and promptly replace any defective
glassware. Even a small crack can cause glass to break, especially when heated. To avoid
cuts and injuries, I will immediately dispose of any broken glassware.
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I will avoid burns by testing glass and metal objects for heat before handling. I know that
the preferred first aid for burns is to immediately hold the burned area under cold water
for several minutes.
I know that serious accidents can occur when wrong chemicals are used in an experiment.
I will always read labels before removing chemicals from their containers.
I will avoid the possibility of contamination and accidents by never returning an unused
chemical to its original container. To avoid waste I will try to pour only the approximate
amount of chemicals required.
I know to immediately flush any chemical spill on the skin with cold water and consult a
doctor if required.
To protect myself from potential hazards, I will wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and
enclosed shoes when performing experiments. I will tie up any loose hair, clothing, or
other materials as well.
I will never eat, drink, or smoke while performing experiments.
After completing all experiments, I will clean my work area, wash my hands, and store the
laboratory equipment in a safe place inaccessible to children and pets.
I will always conscientiously work in a reasonable and prudent manner to optimize my
safety and the safety of others whenever and wherever I am involved with any type of
science equipment or experimentation.
Iamaresponsibleadultwhohasread, understands, andagreestofullyabidebyallsafetyprecautions
prescribed in this lab manual for laboratory work and for the use of a LabPaq. Accordingly, I
recognize the inherent hazards associated with science experimentation; I will always
experiment in a safe and prudent manner; and I unconditionally accept full and complete
responsibility for any and all liability related to my purchase and/or use of a science LabPaq or
any other science products or materials provided by Hands-On Labs, Inc. (HOL).
Student’s Name (print) and Signature
Date
LabPaq by
Hands-On
Labs
ExpErimE
nts
ExpErimEnt
Research and The Scientific
Method
Margaret E. Vorndam, M.S.
Version 42-0116-00-01
Review the safety materials and wear goggles
when working with chemicals. Read the entire
exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the
materials you will need and set aside a safe work
space in which to complete the exercise.
Experiment Summary:
Students will use the scientific method, controls,
double-blind experimentation, and statistics
to determine the validity of data. Students will
investigate whether a subject’s dominant hand can
be used to predict which thumb will be placed on
top when hands are clasped. They will learn how to
write a formal lab report.
14
© Hands-On Labs, Inc.
Experim
Research and The Scientific
Method
Objectives
● To outline an approach to explore a scientific problem
● To explain the rationale of the scientific method
● To use simple statistics to compare data results
● To write a laboratory report
Time Allocation: Four to eight hours total.
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materials
MATERIALS FROM:
Student Provides
QTy
ITEM DESCRIPTION:
1
1
1
1
50
Paper
Pen or pencil
Computer with word processing and spreadsheet programs
Calculator
Volunteers
Note: The packaging and/or materials in this LabPaq may differ slightly from that which is listed
above. For an exact listing of materials, refer to the Contents List form included in the LabPaq.
Safety Issues: None
Discussion and review
Science begins with observation and inquiry based on that observation. While there are
questions that we will possibly never be able to answer satisfactorily such as “How did the
universe begin?” most questions do have answers that can be researched. Theoretically, all
questions that we pose could be considered to be scientific because we are biological creatures,
and the world/ universe around us provides the items that we require to live – shelter, food,
water, and air. Although questions about how the stock market functions may seem to be far
removed from scientific inquiry, those questions are generated by the barter system that
provides shelter, food, water, and air for us. Other animals may use systems that supply their
needs in a parallel, though through a much less complex way.
The acquisition of new scientific knowledge depends on free and ready access to prior scientific
knowledge of a chosen research topic. A scientist is interested in exploring a scientific problem
or an area where knowledge is incomplete – the unknown. She first explores the literature to
discover what is already known about the subject (background information), and then poses a
hypothesis regarding the problem. She then plans and conducts a research project that is
capable of supporting or refuting her hypothesis. If she is able to support the hypothesis, she
can follow up with more research to explore further. Finally, she will seek to publicize her
research findings at a scientific conference and/or submit a publication to a scientific journal.
Not only will she be publicly credited with the new information, but she will make her findings
available for other scientists to test, critique, and use in further research on the topic. Thus, the
cycle of information continues with past research informing new research efforts. The overall
result is the total body of knowledge that comprises all of science.
Over time, scientists have developed a global approach to research that has informed
investigative methodology. This method had its roots in the inquiry-driven teachings of Socrates
and developed more formally as a logical approach to critical thinking-driven research during
the Age of Enlightenment. Although today scientists and theoreticians argue about variations
applicable to specific problems, the scientific method has been accepted as the basis of
scientific inquiry.
Exercise 1: The Scientific Method
Search Key Words: Scientific method, scientific research.
For this laboratory, a simple research project will be conducted, followed by the construction
of a formal laboratory report. We will first illustrate the step-by-step process involved in the
formulation and conduct of a simple exercise. Then, we will look at the process involved in the
construction of a formal laboratory report which is a way to present research in an organized
manner and is similar to the format that one would use to author a research article that could
be submitted to a scientific journal.
First, let us look at a s…
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