question
What are the four traditions of geography?
answer
* Earth Science: Environmental sciences - air/water/land (physical geography)
*Spatial and locational analysis: space, scale, distance, direction, position, location
* Man-Made: nature and society or human-environment studies (human environment interactions)
*Regionalization: integration of similar physical and cultural characteristics of places to define a region; urban geography and the built environment (urban)
*Spatial and locational analysis: space, scale, distance, direction, position, location
* Man-Made: nature and society or human-environment studies (human environment interactions)
*Regionalization: integration of similar physical and cultural characteristics of places to define a region; urban geography and the built environment (urban)
question
How is "scale" and the ecological fallacy related?
answer
*Ecological fallacy tells us that we cannot say that risk factors for individuals can be transferred to a larger scale group.
*Scale = Populations, individual
*Ecological Fallacy = the idea that associations statistically identified at one scale of analysis are valid/generalizable to either larger or smaller scales (can be geographic or individuals and populations)
*Scale = Populations, individual
*Ecological Fallacy = the idea that associations statistically identified at one scale of analysis are valid/generalizable to either larger or smaller scales (can be geographic or individuals and populations)
question
Who is Jacques May and what was his contribution to the field of Medical Geography?
answer
* Author of Medical Geography: Its Methods and Objectives (1950), Atlas of the Distribution of Diseases (1950-54), and The Ecology of Disease (1958)
*"Father of Medical Geography" - led way to idea of human ecology
* Trekked around the world and wrote 13 volumes of his observations of health around the world.
*"Father of Medical Geography" - led way to idea of human ecology
* Trekked around the world and wrote 13 volumes of his observations of health around the world.
question
Kearns and Moon identified three new themes in health geography. What were those themes?
answer
* Concerned with human health & Well-being
* Emergence of a place as a framework for understanding health
* Develop 'critical' geographies of health
* Emergence of a place as a framework for understanding health
* Develop 'critical' geographies of health
question
Name one future theme in health geography
answer
* Studying infectious diseases (new and recurring)
* "How a place contributes to health and well being."
* "How a place contributes to health and well being."
question
What is the World Health Organization's (1946) definition of health?
answer
"Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease of infirmity"
question
What is J. Ralph Audy's (1971) definition of 'Health"? Please provide two examples for each insult: chemical, physical, infectious and psychosocial.
answer
* "Health is a continuing property that can be measured by the individual's ability to rally from a wide range and considerable amplitude of insults, the insults being chemical, physical, infectious, psychological, and social. One might prefer the term "stimuli" or "hazards" to "insults." Such stimuli may be either negative or positive: The crucial thing is that the individual must respond to them."
* Chemical: Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, pesticides
* Physical: Temperature, Humidity, Flood
* Infectious: Virus, Bacteria, Protozoa
* Psychosocial: Danger, Crowds, Isolation, Anxiety
* Chemical: Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, pesticides
* Physical: Temperature, Humidity, Flood
* Infectious: Virus, Bacteria, Protozoa
* Psychosocial: Danger, Crowds, Isolation, Anxiety
question
Geography
answer
the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of human activity as it affects and is affected by these, including the distribution of populations and resources, land use, and industries.
question
Health geography
answer
focuses on vulnerable populations, disease prevention, health promotion and the studies of "place" and "therapeutic environments"
question
Medical geography
answer
arches over biological, environmental and social sciences; utilizes qualitative (interviews, focus groups, fieldwork) and quantitative (mapping and spatial statistics) methods to understand the spatial patterns and etiology of disease in different places
question
Ecology (biology)
answer
The study of organisms and how they interact with their environment, also referred to as their habitat
question
Human ecology
answer
study of complex relationships between humans and their environment
question
Social ecology
answer
study of relationships between individuals, social groups, and their environments
question
Political ecology
answer
Study of relationships between political, economic and social factors with environmental issues and changes
question
Ecological fallacy
answer
Data from a large scale unit of analysis are over-generalized as evidence for smaller units
question
Congenital diseases
answer
present at birth
question
Chronic diseases
answer
present or recurring over a long period of time
question
Degenerative diseases
answer
deterioration or impairment of an organ or structure of cells and their associated tissues
question
Infectious diseases
answer
Result from an invasion of organisms can be passed from person to person
question
Clinical and sub-clinical symptoms
answer
*Clinical: has recognizable signs and symptoms
*Sub-Clinical: disease has no recognizable signs or clinical findings
*Sub-Clinical: disease has no recognizable signs or clinical findings
question
Incubation and latency period
answer
* Incubation - time for a disease agent to adapt and multiply and become numerous
* Latency - time period between infection and when a person shows clinical symptoms
* Latency - time period between infection and when a person shows clinical symptoms
question
Endemic diseases
answer
constantly present in an area
question
Epidemic diseases
answer
occur at levels beyond normal expectation
question
Incidence
answer
Number of new cases
(# of new cases / total population) * 100
(# of new cases / total population) * 100
question
Prevalence
answer
Number of total cases of a disease in a given area during a given period of time
(total cases / total population) * 100
(total cases / total population) * 100
question
What two environmental conditions increase the risk of water-related diseases?
answer
* Floods and hurricanes, contamination of water.
* Agents (bugs) in the water will replicate when the temperatures are high. (Temp and precipitation)
* High temperature and heavy rainfall
* Agents (bugs) in the water will replicate when the temperatures are high. (Temp and precipitation)
* High temperature and heavy rainfall
question
Describe the differences between water-borne, water-unwashed and water-based diseases? Please give two examples of each.
answer
* Water-based - dependent on body of water, vector-breeding habitat (i.e. malaria, river blindness)
* Water-borne - transmitted via water (i.e. typhoid, cholera, Hepatitis A)
* Water-unwashed - preventable by hand, hair, clothes, and floor washing, and other hygiene practices such as washing with soap and water (i.e. intestinal worms, colds, plague, dysentery)
* Water-borne - transmitted via water (i.e. typhoid, cholera, Hepatitis A)
* Water-unwashed - preventable by hand, hair, clothes, and floor washing, and other hygiene practices such as washing with soap and water (i.e. intestinal worms, colds, plague, dysentery)
question
What is oral rehydration therapy (ORT)?
answer
Life-saving, simple combination of salt, sugar, and clean water; used to treat diarrheal diseases
question
How is "Population" defined in the triangle of human ecology?
answer
People: sex/gender, age, genetics, immunology, nutrition
question
What factors are important in the ability of a population to cope with "insults"?
answer
Genetics, nutritional status, immunity of population,age
question
What are the mechanisms by which age, immunology and nutrition impact health status?
answer
Children need protection because their immune systems are still growing. Older people need good nutrition to keep their immune system working.
question
Habitat can "roughly be divided into three types: "the natural, the built and the social." Please describe how the built and social environments could impact disease?
answer
Social: lower education (education is #1 predictor of health), lower employment/poverty leads to less access to health insurance
Built: infrastructure/zoning→ if you're living near an industrial zone you have higher chances of asthma, air/water pollution, housing might be bad (not keep out water, cold, mosquitos)
Built: infrastructure/zoning→ if you're living near an industrial zone you have higher chances of asthma, air/water pollution, housing might be bad (not keep out water, cold, mosquitos)
question
Please describe the differences in disease risk for nuclear, dispersed and linear settlement patterns.
answer
* Nuclear: most common, rural/village vibes, facilitates the contamination of water sources and directly spreads contagious diseases
* Dispersed: farmland owners, exposed to vectored diseases that come from the natural surroundings
* Linear: houses lined on both sides of a river/road. The worst conditions of all settlement patterns.
* Exposed to insect-transmitted diseases + the clustering of houses increases contamination
* Suburbs = increased tick vectors
* Housing by highway = air pollution
* Countryside = mosquito & ticks
* Dispersed: farmland owners, exposed to vectored diseases that come from the natural surroundings
* Linear: houses lined on both sides of a river/road. The worst conditions of all settlement patterns.
* Exposed to insect-transmitted diseases + the clustering of houses increases contamination
* Suburbs = increased tick vectors
* Housing by highway = air pollution
* Countryside = mosquito & ticks
question
Please describe four ways by which "culture" may impact human behavior and their interaction with the triangle of human ecology?
answer
1. Family
2. Music
3. politics/economy
4. Communication
2. Music
3. politics/economy
4. Communication
question
Please provide examples of "buffers" against disease -i.e., cultural practices to protect people from disease?
answer
Vaccinations, pesticides, hand washing, and medicines
question
Please describe the four types of regions involved in the study of "Landscape Epidemiology".
answer
1. Biomes: regions w/ similar climate, geomorphic, soils, plants, animals, insects, and microbe communities. Can be aquatic or terrestrial.
2. Natural nindus: micro/smaller (local) scale environments
3. Realms of evolution: barriers to passing "genetic" info - big grand features that separate out disease- mountain ranges/Great Wall of China, large river.
4. Cultural realm: different cultural practices lead to different diseases.
2. Natural nindus: micro/smaller (local) scale environments
3. Realms of evolution: barriers to passing "genetic" info - big grand features that separate out disease- mountain ranges/Great Wall of China, large river.
4. Cultural realm: different cultural practices lead to different diseases.
question
Describe the life stages of a tick, their feeding needs and animal reservoirs to proceed from one stage to the next.
answer
Adult female lays 10,000 eggs that hatch into seed ticks
Larvae: must feed on small animal (mice, birds, reptiles) for a week to mature to nymph
Nymph: climb grass and wave legs on vibrations, heat, and CO2; latch onto animal host, mature to adult and drop off
Adult: feeds on larger hosts (humans)
Larvae: must feed on small animal (mice, birds, reptiles) for a week to mature to nymph
Nymph: climb grass and wave legs on vibrations, heat, and CO2; latch onto animal host, mature to adult and drop off
Adult: feeds on larger hosts (humans)
question
At what stage do Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease diverge? Describe this difference.
answer
Rocky Mountain is transmitted transovarially (from parent to offspring) in ricketsii ticks so they are born infected. Lyme disease cannot be passed this way, so a nymph or larva must *
feed on an infected animal to get lyme disease.
feed on an infected animal to get lyme disease.
question
For Lyme disease to persist in the environment (become enzootic), what minimum agent infectivity rate is needed in what stage of the tick?
For Rocky Mountain spotted fever to persist in the environment (become enzootic) what minimum agent infectivity rate is needed at what stage of the tick?
For Rocky Mountain spotted fever to persist in the environment (become enzootic) what minimum agent infectivity rate is needed at what stage of the tick?
answer
Lyme: 20-25% infection rate in nymphs.
Rocky Mountain: 10% in larvae
Rocky Mountain: 10% in larvae
question
Which vector transmits the trypanosome that causes African sleeping sickness? Please describe the ecology of that vector.
answer
Vector: tsetse fly.
It transmits the disease through an infected bite, using cattle and livestock as intermediate vectors.
It transmits the disease through an infected bite, using cattle and livestock as intermediate vectors.
question
Which vector transmits the trypanosome that causes Chagas disease? Please describe the ecology of that vector.
answer
Vector=triatomine/kissing bug.
It sucks blood and transmits Chagas through a bite.
It sucks blood and transmits Chagas through a bite.
question
What are "Neglected Tropical Diseases"? Provide two examples.
answer
When a huge disease has high concern over other diseases that have been around.
Ex: River blindness, snake bites
Ex: River blindness, snake bites
question
Human ecology of disease
answer
concerned w/ the ways by which human behavior in cultural + socioeconomic contexts interacts w/ environmental conditions to produce or prevent disease
question
Landscape epidemiology
answer
biotic regionalization of vectored diseases
question
Agent
answer
the disease-causing bacteria or virus
question
Vector
answer
what carries the agent and transmits it between hosts/reservoirs
question
Reservoir
answer
non-human, carries a disease/agent, but does not transmit it (a vector has to pick it up from the reservoir to transmit)
question
Host
answer
The organism infected by a disease agent.
question
Intermediate hosts
answer
Organisms that are necessary to come stage of an agent's life cycle.
question
Enzootic
answer
disease is constantly present in an animal population
question
Epizootic
answer
disease is temporarily prevalent and widespread in an animal population
question
Silent zone of disease
answer
when there's agents, vectors, and disease reservoir but no humans present
question
Viremia
answer
amount of virus, bacteria, or agent circulating in the blood
question
Epigenetics
answer
Phenotypic trait variations that are caused by external or environmental factors that switch genes on and off and affect how cells read genes instead of being caused by changes in the DNA sequence.
question
What is political ecology?
answer
How higher-level political and socio-economic structures (politics, policies, laws, economy, transportation, health system = upstream) create the context in which local people interact with each other and their environment (agency) at the local level (downstream)
question
Provide examples of 'upstream' and 'downstream' causes of poor health.
answer
Downstream: protecting health locally
Upstream: laws and policies, speed limits, regulations for factories, political structures that we are operating within
Upstream: laws and policies, speed limits, regulations for factories, political structures that we are operating within
question
What is the relationship between structure and agency? Are infectious diseases such as Ebola more influenced by structure and/or agency? Why?
answer
Structures: social, political, and economic contexts that constrain or enable an individual's ability to act on their own choices
Human agency: the ability to act in any given environment
Ebola is an example of how political and economic structures influence human interactions with the environment. Larger political decisions led to changes in land use and movement of people to support new economic endeavors on the frontier. So, the Ebola outbreak constrained an individual from acting on their own choices, thus infectious diseases are more influenced by structure. This created the political ecology of Ebola. Political ecology is concerned with understanding upstream political causes of health
Human agency: the ability to act in any given environment
Ebola is an example of how political and economic structures influence human interactions with the environment. Larger political decisions led to changes in land use and movement of people to support new economic endeavors on the frontier. So, the Ebola outbreak constrained an individual from acting on their own choices, thus infectious diseases are more influenced by structure. This created the political ecology of Ebola. Political ecology is concerned with understanding upstream political causes of health
question
There are "universal associations" between poverty and disease. Please provide examples using the terms "direct", "environmental", and "psychosocial" as an outline to describe these associations.
answer
A wide range of diseases of the poor have universal associations with casual factors, characterized as direct, environmental, and psychological.
The direct factor includes unemployment, low income, limited education, inadequate diet, and prostitution.
The environmental factor includes water quality, sanitation, overcrowding, poor housing, rubbish accumulation, lack of garden land, traffic, industrial hazards, pollution, and accidents.
The psychosocial factors includes stress, alienation, insecurity, depression, smoking, alcoholism, drugs, and abandoned children.
The direct factor includes unemployment, low income, limited education, inadequate diet, and prostitution.
The environmental factor includes water quality, sanitation, overcrowding, poor housing, rubbish accumulation, lack of garden land, traffic, industrial hazards, pollution, and accidents.
The psychosocial factors includes stress, alienation, insecurity, depression, smoking, alcoholism, drugs, and abandoned children.
question
Race is a social construct; therefore, the study of racial disparities in health need to be studied in terms of social risk (not biological risk factors) for poor health. Describe one of these social risk factors?
answer
Quality of neighborhood (?)
question
Describe why there is the need to study "women's health".
answer
Men and women have many differences that may cause them to have different health problems.
For example, hormone differences, personality differences and societal differences could lead to different diseases.
For example, hormone differences, personality differences and societal differences could lead to different diseases.
question
What are pathways by which education impacts health? Please be specific.
answer
Culturally targeted education campaigns in some sub- Saharan countries have shown remarkable success at changing or modifying behaviors.
Most poor countries do not have access to education, this is why you see these countries as the ones who struggle the most with HIV
Most poor countries do not have access to education, this is why you see these countries as the ones who struggle the most with HIV
question
What is Radon?
answer
Naturally occurring radioactive gas that can be especially hazardous to fetuses.
Lower Michigan has a rock which emits radon.
Lower Michigan has a rock which emits radon.
question
What is the precautionary principle?
answer
The idea that action should be taken immediately if there is a clear indication of potential harm to human life and health, even if the scientific evidence presented is incomplete.
This is especially relevant if a delay will cause irreparable damage
This is especially relevant if a delay will cause irreparable damage
question
What do we mean by "gene-environment interaction" studies?
answer
Take two people and expose them to the same exposure and the person who does get infected could be because the person may have a susceptible gene.
question
Describe the four stages of the demographic transition
answer
First stage: Premodern, both mortality and fertility are high and overall population growth is low
Second stage: Urbanizing/industrializing, sees a decline in mortality rates while fertility continues at its historically high level, leading to a rapid increase in population growth. During this stage of transition, natural increase (the difference between births and deaths) accelerates.
Third stage: Mature industrial, under conditions associated with urbanization and economic demands for a more educated workforce, the birth rate falls
Fourth stage: Postindustrial, when birth rates fall to meet low death rates.
Second stage: Urbanizing/industrializing, sees a decline in mortality rates while fertility continues at its historically high level, leading to a rapid increase in population growth. During this stage of transition, natural increase (the difference between births and deaths) accelerates.
Third stage: Mature industrial, under conditions associated with urbanization and economic demands for a more educated workforce, the birth rate falls
Fourth stage: Postindustrial, when birth rates fall to meet low death rates.
question
Describe stages of the life course.
answer
Infancy
Childhood
Young Adulthood
Maturity
Seniority
Childhood
Young Adulthood
Maturity
Seniority
question
What is ecological simplification?
answer
the reduction in niche diversity due to the loss of landscape complexity and ecological integrity, generally resulting from human activities
question
We make health maps for disease surveillance and research. Discuss the purposes of disease surveillance and research in health studies.
answer
To look at spatial patterns of disease & underlying risk factors for disease
question
Discuss the significance of John Snow's 1855 dot map of cholera.
answer
He was one of the first to map a disease, which resulted in him finding the source of cholera in the location of study. It was a new tool for disease research.
question
What is the difference between absolute and relative location?
answer
Absolute: precise location, coordinates, satellites
Relative: description of how a place is related to others. Ex: my apartment is 1 mile from campus and it is 5 blocks away from the target on grand river.
Relative: description of how a place is related to others. Ex: my apartment is 1 mile from campus and it is 5 blocks away from the target on grand river.
question
What is the difference between reference and thematic maps?
answer
Thematic map focuses on the spatial variability of a specific distribution or theme (such as population density or average annual income), whereas a reference map focuses on the location and names of the features
question
Describe spatial data sources: Address matching, the GPS and remote sensing.
answer
Address matching: using the US Census files called Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) They are block-level street files that have their own unique data structure that GIS software can read and convert into various GIS formats.
GPS: Locations where people live and work can also be identified during fieldwork by using a GPS receiver that measures the X and Y coordinates. Satellite-based system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the US government.
Remote sensing: the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance, including by satellites and by airplanes. Satellite images are complex digital photographs taken from satellite sensors orbiting earth. They can also sense electromagnetic wavelengths that humans cannot detect such as near-infrared wavelengths.
GPS: Locations where people live and work can also be identified during fieldwork by using a GPS receiver that measures the X and Y coordinates. Satellite-based system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the US government.
Remote sensing: the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance, including by satellites and by airplanes. Satellite images are complex digital photographs taken from satellite sensors orbiting earth. They can also sense electromagnetic wavelengths that humans cannot detect such as near-infrared wavelengths.
question
Cartographers "generalize" information on to a map. What does "generalize" mean in cartography?
answer
Not all of reality can be put on a map, the mapmaker must choose what is important to represent. A map is a model of what a mapmaker believes is crucial for analyzing etiology or communicating important relationships.
question
SIR refers to "Susceptible", "Infected", "Removed". What is the basic reproduction number (R0) refer to?
answer
It refers to the average number of secondary infections produced when one infection occurs in a virgin population (i.e., one in which everyone is susceptible).
Secondary rate of infection
Secondary rate of infection
question
How are the geographic terms "distance" and "density" used to study of infectious disease diffusion?
answer
They are used in calculating how fast a disease can spread
question
What is herd immunity?
answer
the proportion of immunity in a specific population needed to prevent the infectious contact from finding a susceptible host, thereby ending the epidemic.
question
Please describe how an epidemic follows an S-shaped curve? (Figure 6.3) (Epidemic Peaks slide).
answer
Starts slow, great inc in infection due to large susceptible population population, decreases as susceptible pop decreases significantly
question
What factors are important in determining the critical time between epidemic peaks?
answer
SIR numbers, source type (point, continuous, intermittent)
question
Please describe the three types of disease diffusion (relocation, expansion/contagious and hierarchical).
answer
Relocation - involves introduction of a foreign innovation to a location
Hierarchical - disease agents moving by contact among people through urban areas according to areas relative size
Expansion/contagious - farther apart people are, less likely to interact
Hierarchical - disease agents moving by contact among people through urban areas according to areas relative size
Expansion/contagious - farther apart people are, less likely to interact
question
Please describe how infectious diseases "cascade down" the urban hierarchy (Figure 6.4). Note where the infection originated (index case).
answer
Eventually reaches first order source which infects the most amt of people
question
Please provide examples of three barriers to infectious disease transmission (absorbing barriers, reflecting barriers and permeable barriers).
answer
Absorbing - stop innovation, vaccination
Reflecting - channel and intensify diffusion, block spread to other location
Permeable - allow some diffusion but slow process, international borders
Reflecting - channel and intensify diffusion, block spread to other location
Permeable - allow some diffusion but slow process, international borders
question
Is measles still a problem in the world?
answer
Yes, outbreaks occur where groups of unvaccinated people are present
question
Please describe Influenza (Hint: for humans Influenza A and B).
answer
Influenza A: is divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus -- hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). There are 16 hemagglutinin and 9 neuraminidase subtypes
Influenza B: not divided into subtypes but can be broken down into different strains.
Influenza B: not divided into subtypes but can be broken down into different strains.
Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:
Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
