micro ch 27 - Assignment Essays %

question

in vivo

answer

control microbial growth inside the body

question

chemotherapeutics

answer

chemicals used internally to control microbial growth

question

selective toxicity

answer

A drug that kills harmful microbes without damaging the host

question

chemotherapeutics are categorized based on

answer

structure, mode of action, spectrum of antimicrobial activity

question

mode of action

answer

the way the agent kills or inhibits growth (if it affects cell membrane, cell wall, transcription, translation, etc)

question

spectrum

answer

if it affects gram positive, gram negative or both (broad/narrow)

question

broad spectum

answer

effective against both gram positive and gram negative

question

narrow spectrum

answer

effective against only gram positive OR gram negative

question

two categories of chemotherapeutics

answer

synthetic antimicrobial drugs and antibiotics (natural)

question

types of synthetic antimicrobial drugs

answer

growth factor analogs and quinolones

question

how much therapeutic agents do we generate and utilize in one year?

answer

10,000 metric tons

question

why are only 1% of therapeutic agents actually used?

answer

not all exhibit selective toxicity, If intracellular pathogen, our cells don't take antibiotic up or bacterial cells don’t

question

agents that inhibit cell wall synthesis

answer

vancomycin, bacitracin, penicillins, cephalosporins

question

agents that inhibit folic acid metabolism

answer

trimethoprim, sulfonamides

question

agents that affect cytoplasmic membrane structure and function

answer

polymyxins, daptomycin

question

agents that affect lipid biosynthesis

answer

platensimycin

question

agents that affect DNA gyrase

answer

quinolones (Nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, novobiocin)

question

agents that inhibit protein synthesis: 50s inhibitor

answer

erythromycin

question

agents that inhibit protein synthesis: 30s inhibitor

answer

tetracycline, streptomycin, gentamicin

question

broad spectrum agents

answer

penicillin and tetracycline

question

narrow spectrum agents

answer

vancomycin

question

penicillin has what kind of structure?

answer

beta-lactam

question

how do beta-lactam antibiotics work?

answer

inhibit cell wall synthesis

question

over ___% of therapeutic agents we utilize inhibit cell wall synthesis

answer

question

how do fluoroquinolones work?

answer

inhibit DNA gyrase

question

how do Macrolides work?

answer

inhibit protein synthesis

question

growth factor

answer

broad group of proteins that stimulate cell division

question

growth factor analog

answer

structurally similar to growth factors but don't work like one, synthetic

question

sulfa drug

answer

(first) growth factor analog used widely, treat streptococcus infections

question

sulfa drug spectrum

answer

broad

question

sulfanilamide

answer

sulfa-drug -analog of para-aminobenzoic acid

question

Para-aminobenzoic acid

answer

precurser to make folic acid

question

folic acid is required for

answer

nucleic acid synthesis

question

Sulfanilamide

answer

affects the enzyme so it interacts with sulfa drug instead of p-aminobenzoic acid, stops reaction so does not continue with synthesis (no folic acid, no nucleic acid)

question

sulfanilamide is only active in

answer

bacteria (humans need folic acid but we do not make our own, therefore we do not have a metabolic pathway this can mess with)

question

bacterial cell (can or cannot) synthesize folic acid in the presence of sulfa drug

answer

cannot

question

prevent resistance of sulfa drugs

answer

give 2 different drugs (trimethoprim and sulfonamide), blocks multiple steps of the folic acid synthesis pathway, not likely bacteria will mutate two different genes

question

Isoniazid

answer

narrow spectrum growth factor analog, used to treat Mycobacterium tuberculosis

question

how is the cell wall in Mycobacterium tuberculosis unusual?

answer

it is not gram positive or negative, cell wall has chemical mycolic acid

question

Isoniazid inhibits chemical

answer

myocolic acid (cell wall component), cell won't be able to divide

question

how long do you have to take treatment of Isoniazid?

answer

6 months

question

quinolones

answer

broad spectrum synthetic agent that inhibits DNA gyrase

question

DNA gyrase

answer

adds negative supercoils to DNA

question

Ciprofoxacin

answer

quinolone with fluorine attached, used to treat UTI, Bacillus antracis, and used in beef and poultry industries

question

quinolones are used in beef and poultry industries as a

answer

prophylactic, prevent respiratory infections

question

what may happen if a cow takes antibiotics (growth factor) to inhibit diseases?

answer

become resistant to antibiotics, if meat is contaminated we cannot use the antibiotic to treat it because it is resistant

question

moxifloxacin

answer

type of fluoroquinolone, used with other drugs, don't have to take as long as Isoniazid

question

Antibiotics

answer

natural antimicrobial agents produced by microorganisms (fungi and bacteria) and used to kill other microbes (mainly bacteria)

question

why would bacteria produce antibiotics?

answer

reduce competition, inhibit growth of surrounding microorganisms

question

why aren't quinolones technically antibiotics?

answer

antibiotics are naturally occuring, quinolones are synthetic

question

fungal antibiotics

answer

have beta-lactam ring structure

question

original penicillin

answer

Penicillin G

question

who discovered Penicillin G?

answer

Alexander Fleming (1929)

question

Penicillium chrysogenum

answer

fungus that produces penicillin

question

Penicillin G

answer

inhibits gram positive microbes but not gram negative (gram neg naturally resistant)

question

how is gram negative naturally resistant to Penicillin G?

answer

the cell wall is impermeable to penicillin so it cannot enter, and kill cell

question

new penicillins

answer

Ampicillin, Amoxicillin

question

new penicillins (Ampicillin/Amoxicillin)

answer

semi-synthetic, broader spectrum, inhibits both gram positive and gram negative microbes

question

semi-synthetic penicillin

answer

Modified penicillin G on the N-acetyl group

question

beta-lactamase

answer

An enzyme that cleaves off the beta-lactam ring, makes penicillin not functional

question

Amoxicillin is beta-lactamase

answer

sensitive (if the bacteria has beta-lactamase, it could cleave off the amoxicillin and the bacteria would not be affected by penicillin)

question

amoxicillin and clavulanic acid is

answer

Augmentin

question

clavulanic acid inhibits

answer

beta-lactamase activity (so can still cleave off beta-lactam ring and kill bacterial cell)

question

new penicillin is modified so

answer

affects both gram positive and negative bacteria, SOME are beta-lactamase resistant (so even if bacteria has beta-lactamase, it cannot disrupt penicillin)

question

beta-lacatamase resistant (insensitive)

answer

Even if bacteria has beta-lactamase, it cannot disrupt penicillin

question

antibiotics that are beta-lactamase resistant

answer

methicillin, oxacillin

question

cephalosporins are produced by

answer

cephalosporium (genus of fungi)

question

cephalosporins

answer

-have beta-lactam ring structure

- same mod of action as penicillin (inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis)

- broader spectrum than penicillin

question

cephalosporins are (more or less) resistant to beta-lactamase activity than penicillin

answer

more (ring won't get cleaved off so antibiotic will still work)

question

what bacteria is treated by cephalosporin?

answer

N. gonnorrhoeae

question

what cephalosprin treats N. gonorrhoeae?

answer

Cefriaxone

question

prokaryotic antibiotics are produced by genus

answer

streptomyces

question

what do all prokaryotic antibiotics have in common?

answer

produced by streptomyces, they impact protein synthesis (mess with ribosome)

question

types of prokaryotic antibiotics (general)

answer

ahminoglycosides, macrolides, tetracyclines, daptomycin, platensimycin

question

aminoglycosides

answer

- narrow spectrum (affect gram negative)

- inhibit protein synthesis

- has side effects and tendency to become resistant

- only use these if necessary

question

aminoglycoside inhibits protein synthesis at the which part of the subunit of the ribosome?

answer

30s

question

aminoglycosides antibiotics

answer

streptomycin, kanamycin, gentamycin, neomycin (neosporin)

question

what are three things neosporin made up of?

answer

neomycin, bacitracin, polymyxin

question

neomycin

answer

antibiotic of penicillin, inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the ribosome

question

bactitracin

answer

like penicillin, inhibits cell wall synthesis

question

polymyxin

answer

destruction of cell membrane

question

macrolides

answer

- narrow or broad spectrum

- inhibit protein synthesis

- if allergic to penicillin, use this antibiotic

question

macrolides inhibits protein synthesis at the which part of the subunit of the ribosome?

answer

50s

question

macrolides antibiotics

answer

Erythromycin, tylosin, azithromycin (zithromax)

question

what is zithromax used to treat?

answer

ear infections

question

50% of antibiotics are used in

answer

agriculture (feed bags to help animals grow)

question

tetracyclines

answer

- broad spectrum

- inhibit protein synthesis

question

tetracyclines inhibit protein synthesis on what subunit of the ribosome?

answer

30s

question

tetracycline is similar to which other prokaryotic antibiotic?

answer

aminoglycosides (both inhibit protein synthesis on 30s ribosome, but look different)

question

where are tetracyclines used?

answer

medical field and agriculture as food supplements

question

who cannot use tetracyclines?

answer

pregnant or nursing moms, kids under the age of 8 (discolors teeth in developing kids or fetuses)

question

daptomycin

answer

-narrow spectrum (gram positive)

- used for staph and strep

-disrupts cytoplasmic membrane

-have bacterial resistance

question

how does daptomycin disrupt cytoplasmic membrane?

answer

forms pores in the membrane, H+ can freely go in and out so it looses the PMF (depolarization)

question

platensimycin

answer

-narrow spectrum (gram positive)

-inhibits fatty acid synthesis

-bacterial resistance unlikely

question

antiviral agents

answer

HAART, Oseltamivir (Tamifllu)

question

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

answer

RNA virus that mutates rapidly, results in death if do not take medications

question

how does HIV infect our cells?

answer

because its a RNA virus, it converts it to DNA to insert it into out genes

question

What cell does HIV attack?

answer

T4 helper cells

question

reverse transcriptase

answer

An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis

question

retrovirus

answer

virus that contains RNA as its genetic information, and changes it to DNA

question

HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy)

answer

Combination of drugs effective against HIV

question

types of HAART drugs

answer

nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitor (and fusion inhibitors)

question

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

answer

has a nucleoside analog that inhibits the continuation of making the DNA

question

first drug used against HIV (nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor)

answer

azidothymidine

question

how does the nucleoside analog differ?

answer

sugar typically has an OH, the analog lacks the OH

question

Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors

answer

binds directly to reverse transcriptase and inhibits the activity, not a nucleotide

question

protease inhibitor

answer

inhibits HIV protease so virus cannot complete life cycle (protease cleaves the viral proteins into separate entities)

question

protease inhibitor drug

answer

saquinavir

question

fusion inhibitor

answer

- not a part of HAART technically

-inhibits fusion of virus and T4 helper cell (in order for the virus to infect the cell it has to fuse with the host, this is inhibited, cell cannot enter)

question

drug used to treat influenza

answer

Osetamivir (tamiflu)

question

Osetamivir (tamiflu)

answer

neuraminidase inhibitor, virus cannot go out and affect other cells (reduces viral load in body)

question

in flu strains like H1N1, H stands for

answer

Hemagglutinin

question

in flu strains like H1N1, N stands for

answer

Neuraminidase

question

Hemagglutinin

answer

viral protein responsible for binding the virus to the cell that is being infected

question

Neuramindase

answer

enzyme that enables the virus to leave the host (important so it can go and infect other cells)

question

fungal infections are very common in

answer

immunocompromised individuals

question

because fungi are eukaryotes, and so are we, we worry about

answer

host toxicity (why anti fungal agents are typically applied topically)

question

Ergosterol inhibitors

answer

mess with membrane of fungal cell (polyenes, azoles and allyamines)

question

polyenes

answer

produced by streptomyces, bind to ergosterol, cell membrane becomes unstable and loses integrity

question

Azoles and allylamines

answer

inhibit ergosterol synthesis

question

we don't have ergosterol, we have

answer

cholesterol

question

cell wall inhibitors

answer

Echinocandins and polyoxins

question

chemicals in the cell wall of fungi

answer

1,3 beta-D glucan and chitin

question

echinocandins

answer

block 1,3 beta-D glucan syntehsis

question

polyoxins

answer

block chitin biosynthesis, used more in agriculture

question

if cell wall of fungi synthesis is inhibited what happens?

answer

no cell wall, the cell will lyse

question

candida albicans

answer

causes candidiasis (fungal infection- THRUSH and diaper rash in babies (or if baby is exposed to antibiotics, end up with white mouth)

question

opportunistic pathogen

answer

does not cause disease in healthy individuals, only those immunocompromised (no T4 helper cells)

question

drug resistance: lack structure the drug inhibits

answer

would not use penicillin for mycoplasma (penicillin inhibits cell wall synthesis, mycoplasma is a bacteria with no cell wall)

question

drug resistance: impermeable to drug

answer

gram negative bacteria is naturally impermeable to penicillin G

question

drug resistance: inactive drug

answer

enzyme beta-lactamase inactivates penicillin, acetylation of chloramphenicol, add hydroxyl group to streptomycin

question

drug resistance: modify target of drug

answer

if affect ribosome, alter the subunit (so it still makes proteins but antibiotics cannot impact), or Quinolones are effective agaisnt DNA gyrase, alter the DNA gyrase

question

drug resistance: pump drugs out of cell

answer

tetracyclines, if pumps in, can actively pump out (eflex)

question

drug resistance: develop alternative resistant metabolic pathway

answer

sulfa drugs- bacteria started to take in folic acid from environment instead of synthesizing it

question

R plasmid

answer

A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics

question

multi resistance plasmids

answer

gives resistance to multiple antibiotics

question

why have there been a rise in resistance of antibiotics?

answer

overuse, misuse, and artificial selection

question

what was the first drug used to treat someone with Niceria gonnorrhoeae?

answer

penicillin

question

what do we use today to treat Niceria gonnorrhoeae?

answer

Ceftriaxone (cephalosporin)

question

when did we first start seeing resistance of staphylococcus aureus?

answer

1950

question

inappropriate use of antibiotics include

answer

growth supplement, prophylactic

question

prophylactic

answer

use of antibiotics to prevent disease instead of treat

question

Campylobacter jejuni

answer

found in chickens, causes severe diarrhea and GI problems

question

new analogs of existing compounds

answer

take existing drug and alter compound so resistance doesn't work against it

question

new analogs of existing compound example

answer

take vancomycin and add extra oxygen so bacteria is not resistant

question

computer drug design

answer

use of a computer to help come up with new drugs

question

computer drug design example

answer

model of HIV protease on a computer to see where active site was, came up with drug that binds to the protease in the active site so protease no longer works (Saquinavir)

question

drug combinations

answer

Augmentin (amoxicillin and clavulanic acid), Sulfa drugs (trimethoprim and sulfonamide)

question

how long does it take to make new antibiotic?

answer

10-25 years

1 of 149

question

in vivo

answer

control microbial growth inside the body

question

chemotherapeutics

answer

chemicals used internally to control microbial growth

question

selective toxicity

answer

A drug that kills harmful microbes without damaging the host

question

chemotherapeutics are categorized based on

answer

structure, mode of action, spectrum of antimicrobial activity

question

mode of action

answer

the way the agent kills or inhibits growth (if it affects cell membrane, cell wall, transcription, translation, etc)

question

spectrum

answer

if it affects gram positive, gram negative or both (broad/narrow)

question

broad spectum

answer

effective against both gram positive and gram negative

question

narrow spectrum

answer

effective against only gram positive OR gram negative

question

two categories of chemotherapeutics

answer

synthetic antimicrobial drugs and antibiotics (natural)

question

types of synthetic antimicrobial drugs

answer

growth factor analogs and quinolones

question

how much therapeutic agents do we generate and utilize in one year?

answer

10,000 metric tons

question

why are only 1% of therapeutic agents actually used?

answer

not all exhibit selective toxicity, If intracellular pathogen, our cells don't take antibiotic up or bacterial cells don’t

question

agents that inhibit cell wall synthesis

answer

vancomycin, bacitracin, penicillins, cephalosporins

question

agents that inhibit folic acid metabolism

answer

trimethoprim, sulfonamides

question

agents that affect cytoplasmic membrane structure and function

answer

polymyxins, daptomycin

question

agents that affect lipid biosynthesis

answer

platensimycin

question

agents that affect DNA gyrase

answer

quinolones (Nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, novobiocin)

question

agents that inhibit protein synthesis: 50s inhibitor

answer

erythromycin

question

agents that inhibit protein synthesis: 30s inhibitor

answer

tetracycline, streptomycin, gentamicin

question

broad spectrum agents

answer

penicillin and tetracycline

question

narrow spectrum agents

answer

vancomycin

question

penicillin has what kind of structure?

answer

beta-lactam

question

how do beta-lactam antibiotics work?

answer

inhibit cell wall synthesis

question

over ___% of therapeutic agents we utilize inhibit cell wall synthesis

answer

question

how do fluoroquinolones work?

answer

inhibit DNA gyrase

question

how do Macrolides work?

answer

inhibit protein synthesis

question

growth factor

answer

broad group of proteins that stimulate cell division

question

growth factor analog

answer

structurally similar to growth factors but don't work like one, synthetic

question

sulfa drug

answer

(first) growth factor analog used widely, treat streptococcus infections

question

sulfa drug spectrum

answer

broad

question

sulfanilamide

answer

sulfa-drug -analog of para-aminobenzoic acid

question

Para-aminobenzoic acid

answer

precurser to make folic acid

question

folic acid is required for

answer

nucleic acid synthesis

question

Sulfanilamide

answer

affects the enzyme so it interacts with sulfa drug instead of p-aminobenzoic acid, stops reaction so does not continue with synthesis (no folic acid, no nucleic acid)

question

sulfanilamide is only active in

answer

bacteria (humans need folic acid but we do not make our own, therefore we do not have a metabolic pathway this can mess with)

question

bacterial cell (can or cannot) synthesize folic acid in the presence of sulfa drug

answer

cannot

question

prevent resistance of sulfa drugs

answer

give 2 different drugs (trimethoprim and sulfonamide), blocks multiple steps of the folic acid synthesis pathway, not likely bacteria will mutate two different genes

question

Isoniazid

answer

narrow spectrum growth factor analog, used to treat Mycobacterium tuberculosis

question

how is the cell wall in Mycobacterium tuberculosis unusual?

answer

it is not gram positive or negative, cell wall has chemical mycolic acid

question

Isoniazid inhibits chemical

answer

myocolic acid (cell wall component), cell won't be able to divide

question

how long do you have to take treatment of Isoniazid?

answer

6 months

question

quinolones

answer

broad spectrum synthetic agent that inhibits DNA gyrase

question

DNA gyrase

answer

adds negative supercoils to DNA

question

Ciprofoxacin

answer

quinolone with fluorine attached, used to treat UTI, Bacillus antracis, and used in beef and poultry industries

question

quinolones are used in beef and poultry industries as a

answer

prophylactic, prevent respiratory infections

question

what may happen if a cow takes antibiotics (growth factor) to inhibit diseases?

answer

become resistant to antibiotics, if meat is contaminated we cannot use the antibiotic to treat it because it is resistant

question

moxifloxacin

answer

type of fluoroquinolone, used with other drugs, don't have to take as long as Isoniazid

question

Antibiotics

answer

natural antimicrobial agents produced by microorganisms (fungi and bacteria) and used to kill other microbes (mainly bacteria)

question

why would bacteria produce antibiotics?

answer

reduce competition, inhibit growth of surrounding microorganisms

question

why aren't quinolones technically antibiotics?

answer

antibiotics are naturally occuring, quinolones are synthetic

question

fungal antibiotics

answer

have beta-lactam ring structure

question

original penicillin

answer

Penicillin G

question

who discovered Penicillin G?

answer

Alexander Fleming (1929)

question

Penicillium chrysogenum

answer

fungus that produces penicillin

question

Penicillin G

answer

inhibits gram positive microbes but not gram negative (gram neg naturally resistant)

question

how is gram negative naturally resistant to Penicillin G?

answer

the cell wall is impermeable to penicillin so it cannot enter, and kill cell

question

new penicillins

answer

Ampicillin, Amoxicillin

question

new penicillins (Ampicillin/Amoxicillin)

answer

semi-synthetic, broader spectrum, inhibits both gram positive and gram negative microbes

question

semi-synthetic penicillin

answer

Modified penicillin G on the N-acetyl group

question

beta-lactamase

answer

An enzyme that cleaves off the beta-lactam ring, makes penicillin not functional

question

Amoxicillin is beta-lactamase

answer

sensitive (if the bacteria has beta-lactamase, it could cleave off the amoxicillin and the bacteria would not be affected by penicillin)

question

amoxicillin and clavulanic acid is

answer

Augmentin

question

clavulanic acid inhibits

answer

beta-lactamase activity (so can still cleave off beta-lactam ring and kill bacterial cell)

question

new penicillin is modified so

answer

affects both gram positive and negative bacteria, SOME are beta-lactamase resistant (so even if bacteria has beta-lactamase, it cannot disrupt penicillin)

question

beta-lacatamase resistant (insensitive)

answer

Even if bacteria has beta-lactamase, it cannot disrupt penicillin

question

antibiotics that are beta-lactamase resistant

answer

methicillin, oxacillin

question

cephalosporins are produced by

answer

cephalosporium (genus of fungi)

question

cephalosporins

answer

-have beta-lactam ring structure

- same mod of action as penicillin (inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis)

- broader spectrum than penicillin

question

cephalosporins are (more or less) resistant to beta-lactamase activity than penicillin

answer

more (ring won't get cleaved off so antibiotic will still work)

question

what bacteria is treated by cephalosporin?

answer

N. gonnorrhoeae

question

what cephalosprin treats N. gonorrhoeae?

answer

Cefriaxone

question

prokaryotic antibiotics are produced by genus

answer

streptomyces

question

what do all prokaryotic antibiotics have in common?

answer

produced by streptomyces, they impact protein synthesis (mess with ribosome)

question

types of prokaryotic antibiotics (general)

answer

ahminoglycosides, macrolides, tetracyclines, daptomycin, platensimycin

question

aminoglycosides

answer

- narrow spectrum (affect gram negative)

- inhibit protein synthesis

- has side effects and tendency to become resistant

- only use these if necessary

question

aminoglycoside inhibits protein synthesis at the which part of the subunit of the ribosome?

answer

30s

question

aminoglycosides antibiotics

answer

streptomycin, kanamycin, gentamycin, neomycin (neosporin)

question

what are three things neosporin made up of?

answer

neomycin, bacitracin, polymyxin

question

neomycin

answer

antibiotic of penicillin, inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the ribosome

question

bactitracin

answer

like penicillin, inhibits cell wall synthesis

question

polymyxin

answer

destruction of cell membrane

question

macrolides

answer

- narrow or broad spectrum

- inhibit protein synthesis

- if allergic to penicillin, use this antibiotic

question

macrolides inhibits protein synthesis at the which part of the subunit of the ribosome?

answer

50s

question

macrolides antibiotics

answer

Erythromycin, tylosin, azithromycin (zithromax)

question

what is zithromax used to treat?

answer

ear infections

question

50% of antibiotics are used in

answer

agriculture (feed bags to help animals grow)

question

tetracyclines

answer

- broad spectrum

- inhibit protein synthesis

question

tetracyclines inhibit protein synthesis on what subunit of the ribosome?

answer

30s

question

tetracycline is similar to which other prokaryotic antibiotic?

answer

aminoglycosides (both inhibit protein synthesis on 30s ribosome, but look different)

question

where are tetracyclines used?

answer

medical field and agriculture as food supplements

question

who cannot use tetracyclines?

answer

pregnant or nursing moms, kids under the age of 8 (discolors teeth in developing kids or fetuses)

question

daptomycin

answer

-narrow spectrum (gram positive)

- used for staph and strep

-disrupts cytoplasmic membrane

-have bacterial resistance

question

how does daptomycin disrupt cytoplasmic membrane?

answer

forms pores in the membrane, H+ can freely go in and out so it looses the PMF (depolarization)

question

platensimycin

answer

-narrow spectrum (gram positive)

-inhibits fatty acid synthesis

-bacterial resistance unlikely

question

antiviral agents

answer

HAART, Oseltamivir (Tamifllu)

question

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

answer

RNA virus that mutates rapidly, results in death if do not take medications

question

how does HIV infect our cells?

answer

because its a RNA virus, it converts it to DNA to insert it into out genes

question

What cell does HIV attack?

answer

T4 helper cells

question

reverse transcriptase

answer

An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis

question

retrovirus

answer

virus that contains RNA as its genetic information, and changes it to DNA

question

HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy)

answer

Combination of drugs effective against HIV

question

types of HAART drugs

answer

nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitor (and fusion inhibitors)

question

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

answer

has a nucleoside analog that inhibits the continuation of making the DNA

question

first drug used against HIV (nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor)

answer

azidothymidine

question

how does the nucleoside analog differ?

answer

sugar typically has an OH, the analog lacks the OH

question

Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors

answer

binds directly to reverse transcriptase and inhibits the activity, not a nucleotide

question

protease inhibitor

answer

inhibits HIV protease so virus cannot complete life cycle (protease cleaves the viral proteins into separate entities)

question

protease inhibitor drug

answer

saquinavir

question

fusion inhibitor

answer

- not a part of HAART technically

-inhibits fusion of virus and T4 helper cell (in order for the virus to infect the cell it has to fuse with the host, this is inhibited, cell cannot enter)

question

drug used to treat influenza

answer

Osetamivir (tamiflu)

question

Osetamivir (tamiflu)

answer

neuraminidase inhibitor, virus cannot go out and affect other cells (reduces viral load in body)

question

in flu strains like H1N1, H stands for

answer

Hemagglutinin

question

in flu strains like H1N1, N stands for

answer

Neuraminidase

question

Hemagglutinin

answer

viral protein responsible for binding the virus to the cell that is being infected

question

Neuramindase

answer

enzyme that enables the virus to leave the host (important so it can go and infect other cells)

question

fungal infections are very common in

answer

immunocompromised individuals

question

because fungi are eukaryotes, and so are we, we worry about

answer

host toxicity (why anti fungal agents are typically applied topically)

question

Ergosterol inhibitors

answer

mess with membrane of fungal cell (polyenes, azoles and allyamines)

question

polyenes

answer

produced by streptomyces, bind to ergosterol, cell membrane becomes unstable and loses integrity

question

Azoles and allylamines

answer

inhibit ergosterol synthesis

question

we don't have ergosterol, we have

answer

cholesterol

question

cell wall inhibitors

answer

Echinocandins and polyoxins

question

chemicals in the cell wall of fungi

answer

1,3 beta-D glucan and chitin

question

echinocandins

answer

block 1,3 beta-D glucan syntehsis

question

polyoxins

answer

block chitin biosynthesis, used more in agriculture

question

if cell wall of fungi synthesis is inhibited what happens?

answer

no cell wall, the cell will lyse

question

candida albicans

answer

causes candidiasis (fungal infection- THRUSH and diaper rash in babies (or if baby is exposed to antibiotics, end up with white mouth)

question

opportunistic pathogen

answer

does not cause disease in healthy individuals, only those immunocompromised (no T4 helper cells)

question

drug resistance: lack structure the drug inhibits

answer

would not use penicillin for mycoplasma (penicillin inhibits cell wall synthesis, mycoplasma is a bacteria with no cell wall)

question

drug resistance: impermeable to drug

answer

gram negative bacteria is naturally impermeable to penicillin G

question

drug resistance: inactive drug

answer

enzyme beta-lactamase inactivates penicillin, acetylation of chloramphenicol, add hydroxyl group to streptomycin

question

drug resistance: modify target of drug

answer

if affect ribosome, alter the subunit (so it still makes proteins but antibiotics cannot impact), or Quinolones are effective agaisnt DNA gyrase, alter the DNA gyrase

question

drug resistance: pump drugs out of cell

answer

tetracyclines, if pumps in, can actively pump out (eflex)

question

drug resistance: develop alternative resistant metabolic pathway

answer

sulfa drugs- bacteria started to take in folic acid from environment instead of synthesizing it

question

R plasmid

answer

A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics

question

multi resistance plasmids

answer

gives resistance to multiple antibiotics

question

why have there been a rise in resistance of antibiotics?

answer

overuse, misuse, and artificial selection

question

what was the first drug used to treat someone with Niceria gonnorrhoeae?

answer

penicillin

question

what do we use today to treat Niceria gonnorrhoeae?

answer

Ceftriaxone (cephalosporin)

question

when did we first start seeing resistance of staphylococcus aureus?

answer

1950

question

inappropriate use of antibiotics include

answer

growth supplement, prophylactic

question

prophylactic

answer

use of antibiotics to prevent disease instead of treat

question

Campylobacter jejuni

answer

found in chickens, causes severe diarrhea and GI problems

question

new analogs of existing compounds

answer

take existing drug and alter compound so resistance doesn't work against it

question

new analogs of existing compound example

answer

take vancomycin and add extra oxygen so bacteria is not resistant

question

computer drug design

answer

use of a computer to help come up with new drugs

question

computer drug design example

answer

model of HIV protease on a computer to see where active site was, came up with drug that binds to the protease in the active site so protease no longer works (Saquinavir)

question

drug combinations

answer

Augmentin (amoxicillin and clavulanic acid), Sulfa drugs (trimethoprim and sulfonamide)

question

how long does it take to make new antibiotic?

answer

10-25 years

Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:

Place an Order