Assignment #1

Q#1:

This week, we are going to explore the concepts of the law of one price and the theory of purchasing power parity. In brief, these tell us that in the absence of trade barriers, the same product should cost the same in all countries (the law of one price). However, there are transaction costs and not all products can be traded internationally. These make the law of one price less useful in practice than it is in theory—at least for many products.

The theory of purchasing power parity, on the other hand, does not have the limitations that the law of one price does. Purchasing power parity tells us that the same product should take the same amount of purchasing power to buy, regardless of the country and currency involved. This approach is useful for international comparisons of numerous economic variables.

This week, we are going to use it to look at currency exchange rates again. Think back to the currency you compared to the US dollar earlier in the course. Now we are going to ask the question: is that currency overvalued or undervalued?

That is actually a rather challenging question to answer. But The Economist has provided us with a rather interesting and quick way of reaching a surprisingly accurate answer to that question. The method is the Big Mac Index.

Following are links to an informative video, a more recent article with Big Mac Index values, and an interactive currency comparison tool. The last two are from The Economist.

Currency Valuation with the Big Mac Index

Read the 2014 Big Mac Index article: “The Big Mac Index.”

You will probably also want to use the interactive comparison tool: Global Exchange Rates, To Go

Questions to address

• Is the currency of the country you studied previously overvalued or undervalued relative to the US Dollar?
• What does your finding suggest for the future behavior of your selected currency: Is it likely to appreciate or depreciate? 

Q#2: 

Choose one of the following options for your Post: 

Option #1: Theme 1 – Information

After reading Cooke’s Fake News and Alternative Facts in the Required Learning Materials (Please see attached for article), please do the following: 

1. Provide a comprehensive definition of 1) misinformation and 2) disinformation by paraphrasing and using your own words. (Please see tips on paraphrasing here.)
2. Briefly explain three reasons mis/disinformation spreads online, according to Cooke’s discussions. Can you relate any of these reasons to technological determinism or social constructivism? Explain briefly.
3. Choose one article from the Theme #1: Information section of the Week 5 Discussion Resources and explain some new information it adds to your understanding of how mis/disinformation is legitimized and/or disseminated online and the effects of it. Be sure to point out anything you found that was surprising or particularly interesting.   
6. Use two quotes from any of your resources to support or explain your points. Make sure to provide in-text citations for both quotes in MLA format.  
9. Provide references for all sources in MLA format.  

 

Option #2: Theme 2 – Social Media 

After reading van Dijck’s chapter, “Engineering Sociality in a Culture of Connectivity,” in the Required Learning Materials (Please see attached for article), please do the following:  

1. Briefly explain how the progression from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 created the conditions for computers to be used in new ways by both individuals and companies. Is there a role for technological determinism or social constructivism in this transition? Explain briefly.
2. Based on the information in van Dijck’s chapter, identify and explain one possible conflict or issue that can arise from the commodification of users by social media companies.  
3. Choose one article from the Theme #2: Social Media section of the Week 5 Discussion Resources and discuss how it relates to something mentioned in van Dijck’s chapter.   

Use two quotes from any of your resources to support or explain your points. Make sure to provide in-text citations for both quotes in MLA format.  
Provide references for all sources in MLA format.    

Option #3: Theme 3 – Community

After reading Bakardjieva’s chapter, “Virtual Togetherness,” in the Required Learning Materials, please do the following:  

1. Concisely describe what “virtual togetherness” is, according to the author, by paraphrasing and summarizing in your own words. 
2. Briefly (1-2 sentences) define each of the five forms of virtual togetherness and provide an example of each:  

   infosumption 
   instrumental
   interaction 
   exploring ideas & chatting   
   community as commitment  

3. Choose one article from the Theme #3: Community section of the Week 5 Discussion Resources and discuss how the community described in the article relates to at least one of the forms of virtual togetherness. Be sure to explain why you chose the form (s) of virtual togetherness you did and point to specific evidence in your chosen article that supports your choice.   

Use two quotes from any of your resources to support or explain your points. Make sure to provide in-text citations for both quotes in MLA format.  
Provide references for all sources in MLA format.  

1

1
INTRODUCTION

R ead the following headlines and determine if the statements are true or false.

True or False? Ariana Grande Left Bloodied and Dazed after Manchester Bombing

True or False? Native American Names Deleted off Facebook

True or False? London Mayor Sadiq Khan Says Citizens Have No Reason to Be
Alarmed Following Terror Attack

True or False? J. K. Rowling Mocks President Trump for Tweeting in the Third Person

True or False? Ireland Just Elected Their First Gay Prime Minister

True or False? Man Mowed Lawn during Tornado

True or False? Maxine Waters Blames the London Attack on Climate and Health
Care “Inaction”

True or False? Fish Swim in the Streets of Miami at High Tide

▪ Why do these headlines ring true or false?

▪ If you saw these headlines on social media, would you share them
with your networks? Why or why not?

▪ How would you present and explain these examples to others?
What strategies and resources would you suggest?

See the “Revisiting the Headlines” section of this book’s “Conclusion” for an explanation
and discussion about these headlines.

FAKE NEWS IS OLD NEWS

A lie can run around the world before the truth has got its boots on.

—Quote often attributed to author Terry Pratchett,
Winston Churchill, Mark Twain, James Watt, and various others

It’s no secret that the Internet is saturated with information of all kinds, and much
of the information is of low or no quality. Yet, before we can blink, this information
makes the rounds without being confirmed. It is all too easy to believe the latest gossip

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2 C H A P T E R 1

or innuendo or get lost in YouTube videos featuring pets and pranks. Unfortunately,
there is another, darker dimension of information found online—there is an excessive
amount of web-based information that is both sensational and malicious, to the point of
being harmful and even dangerous. Even if such information is corrected or disproved,
the audience’s attention has long shifted, the damage has already been done, and the
original misinformation continues to float around online for future discovery.

It is now said that we live in a post-truth era—an era in which audiences are increasingly
likely to believe information that appeals to their emotions and their personal beliefs, as
opposed to seeking and accepting information that is regarded as factual and objective.
People’s information consumption is being increasingly guided by the affective, or
emotional, dimension of their psyche, as opposed to the cognitive dimension. This
post-truth reality is one of the reasons why fake news has become so inescapable, and
consequently, why it’s so hard to combat and interrupt the production and dissemination
of deliberately false information.

The phenomenon of fake news is not new, nor is the concept of post-truth. The Colbert
Report introduced us to the concept of “truthiness” over a decade ago, warning us, albeit
comically, of the danger of accepting information and stories because they appeal to
our emotions and not because they are supported by any real evidence or facts (Colbert
2005). Now, in 2018, journalists and the media remain on high alert and are warning
their constituents about the “production of confusion” that surrounds the current
presidential administration and encourages the industry that is fake news. Alternative
facts are disseminated daily, and fact-based information or reporting that is negative
or objected to is quickly and erroneously labeled as fake news, further obfuscating and
suppressing information that citizens should be aware of and prioritizing.

THE NEED TO BE MULTI-LITERATE
In an age in which tweets and Facebook statuses are being reported as news, Internet
users need to be competent and intelligent users of information; information consumers
should be able and prepared to critique the “news” being broadcast, and they should be
able to seek and find the information that is not being broadcast or otherwise prioritized.
Additionally, they should be able to describe and understand the difference between
the various providers and provocateurs of information. An approach to reaching this
level of critical media consumption is to impart literacy skills to Internet users, many of
whom patronize our libraries. Specifically, critical information literacy (Elmborg 2006;
Eisenberg et al. 2004), digital literacy (Bawden 2008; Bawden and Robinson 2002), media
literacy (Buckingham 2013; Hobbs 2011; De Abreu 2010), and ultimately metaliteracy
(Jacobson and Mackey 2016, 2013; Mackey and Jacobson 2014, 2011; Witek and Grettano
2014) would facilitate the average user’s ability to seek, find, and use appropriate and
quality information, which in turn would facilitate more meaningful learning and
understanding. Literacy skills would facilitate a shift from the routine crowd-sourcing

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3 I N T R O d U C T I O N

of information on the Internet to the substantive evaluation and usage of information.
Further discussion about metaliteracy and the importance of critical information skills
appears in chapter 4 of this report.

Information creation and consumption will always be a significant part of our lives
and our society, influencing how we understand and interact with the world. But the
more information we have access to, the harder it becomes to pick out the good bits, use
them, and relevantly apply them to our lives and individual needs. Formulating ways to
educate users of all ages, inside and outside of formal educational and library settings,
is an important topic that is not limited to any one area or group of people, or any one
discipline of study. The procurement and implementation of literacy skills is a long-term
and integral part of addressing the challenges involved in information consumption.

UNDERSTANDING THE CURRENT STATE OF THE MEDIA
Of particular note to this conversation is the role of journalism in the sphere of fake news.
Jay Rosen, a media critic and professor of journalism at New York University (2017),
warns against low-quality journalism and describes the “production of confusion”
wrought in part by fake news and alternative facts by stating:

The production of confusion is a method that the Trump White House is
using as control, and the fact that when we’re done listening to Kellyanne
Conway, we know less as viewers doesn’t seem to bother the journalists who
interview her, and they’re sort of slow in accommodating this fact.

The production of confusion is facilitated by the current administration’s knowledge
of the media’s “deep grammar” and their subsequent manipulation of news outlets—
they know that the media needs to have access to them, to interview them, to be privy
to information and documents they are producing. Rosen suggests that this “deep
grammar” of the media (the underlying and implicit business model of how the news
outlets function) causes them to lower, or ignore, their standards and ethics, and not
challenge fake news and alternative facts in the way they know that they could or
should, because in doing so, they could inadvertently cut off their sources of information,
rendering them noncompetitive (for example, when the New York Times is banned from
White House press briefings, they are at a disadvantage when trying to analyze and
report the news). Rosen further describes the “deep grammar” of the press by saying:

The deep grammar is like the logic beneath the practice. So, for example,
the fact that you need your interviewees to come back is part of the deep
grammar of journalism, right? It affects a lot of what you do but it’s not on
the surface, it’s not explained to viewers. It’s not something that journalists
would talk about very often. But certainly, Kellyanne Conway knows that and
it gives her an advantage because she knows she has to be welcomed back.

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4 C H A P T E R 1

But again, none of this is new. Journalism and media outlets are no strangers to
controversy and manipulative tactics, nor are government or corporate entities
unfamiliar with devices used to curry favor with, or penalize, journalists and the
media. Consider the legacies of yellow journalism and propaganda and their particular
relationships to political information and world events. Yellow journalism, synonymous
with “the penny press,” “jazz journalism,” “tabloid TV,” and “Internet gossip,” is
characterized by sensational or dramatic language and headlines, and exaggerated
and potentially scandalous content that is poorly researched and often without merit
(Cohen 2000, 8). Such stories are generated solely for attention and revenue (i.e.,
click-bait). Modern-day tabloids still engage in these practices, and social media is ripe
with fantastic headlines and descriptions whose sole purpose is to get users to click and
share. The goal is to employ “circulation-building gimmicks” that emphasize “drama
over accuracy” (Cohen 2000, 18).

Propaganda is information of a prejudiced or disingenuous nature that is used to
encourage a political cause or point of view (Stanley 2015). Propaganda utilizes the
psychological devices of influencing and altering the attitude of a group toward
a specific cause, position, or political agenda in an effort to form a consensus and to
ensure a homogeneous viewpoint or belief. Propaganda is information that is subjective
and is used primarily to influence the target audience and further an agenda, often by
presenting facts selectively (perhaps lying by omission), or by using coded or suggestive
messages or language to elicit an emotional response, as opposed to a rational response.
Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist
groups and corporate entities can also engage in propaganda. Despite its long historical
context, propaganda is alive and well, and it has been at the heart of the criticism
levied against Facebook after the 2016 U.S. presidential election (Shane and Goel
2017). Facebook at first denied any involvement in the dissemination of purchased
advertisements designed to sway social media users, but it later admitted that fake
Russian accounts purchased approximately $100,000 in targeted political ads prior to
the election. The full effect of these ads is not yet known, but it has been established
that these ads reached many people and may indeed have influenced their thinking
and opinions, particularly if people did not realize that the information presented in the
ads was fake. Propaganda is hiding in plain sight and influencing great multitudes of
information consumers every day.

A cursory understanding of political economy and the underlying business structures
of the news media is an important context for appreciating why fake news is so
widespread and difficult to contest. More discussion about political economy, and the
media’s impact on information evaluation and consumption, is featured in chapter 3.

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CHAPTER 1

Engineering Sociality in a Culture
of Connectivity

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Meet the Alvin family. Pete is a 45-year-old biology teacher whose hobby is
paragliding. He has a Facebook page, although lately he has been negligent
in maintaining his network of “friends.” Through LinkedIn, Pete keeps up
his professional profile and occasionally hooks up with other members
from the national teachers union. An early adopter of social media, he
became an enthusiastic contributor to Wikipedia in 2004, and still adds
infrequent entries about his specialty, lizards, to the online encyclopedia.
Pete also used to be a member of a paragliding group on YouTube, which,
back in 2006, actively communicated via short videos of spectacular glides;
the group later dissipated, and he only sporadically checks the site for
interesting glides. Pete’s wife Sandra is a former journalist who now makes
money as a freelance publicist specializing in food. She has over 8,000 fol-
lowers on Twitter and keeps an elaborate blog that also serves as her per-
sonal public relations site. An active family of “netizens,” the Alvins order
books via Amazon and download music via iTunes; Sandra uses Skype to
have video chats with her brother in Hong Kong; their 16-year-old daugh-
ter Zara is a fanatic Facebook user—456 friends right now—and she also
uses Pinterest for “pinning” and sharing photos; and their 12-year-old son
Nick is a devoted gamer, who has recently discovered CityVille, a social
network game developed by Zynga.

The Alvins represent a middle-class family in an average American town
in the year 2012. Over the past decade, their professional and personal lives
have gradually become inundated with social media platforms. Platforms

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[ 4 ] The Culture of Connectivity

like Facebook, YouTube, Wikipedia, and many others enable people like the
Alvins to make connections by sharing expressive and communicative con-
tent, building professional careers, and enjoying online social lives. In fact,
the widespread presence of platforms drives people to move many of their
social, cultural, and professional activities to these online environments.
Teenagers like Zara Alvin cannot imagine a life without Facebook, and San-
dra has become primarily dependent on Twitter for maintaining customer
relations. Pete, however, has become less active on—and more critical of—
the sites he used to frequent several years ago.

Now multiply the Alvins. Every single day, millions of individuals inter-
act through social media. In December 2011, 1.2 billion users worldwide—
82 percent of the world’s Internet population over age 15—logged on to a
social media site, up from 6 percent in 2007.1 Within less than a decade, a
new infrastructure for online sociality and creativity has emerged, pene-
trating every fiber of culture today. Social media, roughly defined as “a
group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and tech-
nological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange
of user-generated content” (Kaplan and Haenlein 2010: 60), form a new
online layer through which people organize their lives. Today, this layer of
platforms influences human interaction on an individual and community
level, as well as on a larger societal level, while the worlds of online and
offline are increasingly interpenetrating. Originally, the need for connected-
ness is what drove many users to these sites. When Web 2.0 first marshaled
the development of so-called social media, in the early years of the new
millennium, participatory culture was the buzzword that connoted the
Web’s potential to nurture connections, build communities, and advance
democracy. Many platforms embraced this rekindled spirit when they
started to make the Web “more social.”

With the rapid growth of social media platforms came the incorporation
of sites by existing and new information companies. Companies often
appeared less interested in communities of users than in their data—a by-
product of making connections and staying connected online. Connectivity
quickly evolved into a valuable resource as engineers found ways to code
information into algorithms that helped brand a particular form of online
sociality and make it profitable in online markets—serving a global market
of social networking and user-generated content. Large and influential plat-
forms such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and LinkedIn exploded in terms
of users and monetizing potential, alongside countless smaller profit and
nonprofit sites. As a result of the interconnection of platforms, a new infra-
structure emerged: an ecosystem of connective media with a few large and
many small players. The transformation from networked communication to

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E NGINE E R ING S O C I A L I T Y IN A CULTUR E OF CONNE CT I VI T Y [ 5 ]

“platformed” sociality, and from a participatory culture to a culture of
connectivity, took place in a relatively short time span of ten years.

This chapter’s argument focuses not on a descriptive account of how
social media affected one family, but on the need for a critical history of the
rise of social media. Such a history is needed to comprehend current ten-
sions in the ecosystem in which platforms and ever-larger groups of users
operate. By exploring technical, social, economic, and cultural perspectives
on social media, we can elucidate how recent changes in our global media
landscape have profoundly affected—if not driven—our experience of
sociality.

1.2. FROM NETWORKED COMMUNICATION

TO PLATFORMED SOCIALITY

The invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, when Tim Berners-Lee man-
aged to connect hypertext technology to the Internet, formed the basis of
a new type of networked communication. Weblogs, list-servers, and e-mail
services helped form online communities or support offline groups. Until
the turn of the millennium, networked media were mostly generic services
that you could join or actively utilize to build groups, but the service itself
would not automatically connect you to others. With the advent of Web
2.0, shortly after the turn of the millennium, online services shifted from
offering channels for networked communication to becoming interactive,
two-way vehicles for networked sociality (Castells 2007; Manovich 2009).
These new services, which opened up a myriad of possibilities for online
connections, were initially perceived as a new global infrastructure, like
water pipes or electricity cables, analogues to the Web itself.

It is a truism to say that media have historically coevolved with the pub-
lic that uses them, as well as with the larger economy of inscription. The
world’s complex constellations of media, in the view of Lisa Gitelman,
should be conceived as the “socially realized structures of communication,
where structures include both technological forms and their associated pro-
tocols, and where communication is a cultural practice, a ritualized colloca-
tion of different people on the same mental map, sharing or engaged with
popular ontologies of representation” (2008: 7). Over the past two centu-
ries, media technologies matured as part of everyday social practices.
Generic technologies like the telephone and the telegraph developed in con-
junction with communicative routines or cultural practices, such as chat-
ting on the phone or sending short messages over the wire. As a medium
coevolves with its quotidian users’ tactics, it contributes to shaping people’s

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[ 6 ] The Culture of Connectivity

everyday life, while at the same time this mediated sociality becomes part
of society’s institutional fabric. Media histories and archaeologies provide
ample evidence of this complex coevolution, relating technologies to users
and organizations to infrastructures (Winston 1998; Kittler 1999; Zielinski
1999; Marvin 1988).

With Web 2.0 maturing into a functional infrastructure, users moved
more of their everyday activities to online environments; these activities
were not simply channeled by platforms, but programmed with a specific
objective. This move shifted the emphasis from providing a utility to pro-
viding a customized service—a transformation akin to the change from
delivering water through pipelines to distributing bottled Evian water or to
a water-filtering system. Whereas before, websites were generally operated
as conduits for social activity, the new platforms increasingly turn these
conduits into applied services, rendering the Internet easier to use but more
difficult to tinker with. Social media platforms, as they are now commonly
called, epitomize the larger conversion from all-purpose devices to linear
applied services—a development that Jonathan Zittrain (2008: 104–7) has
persuasively touted as “appliancization.” When companies started to build
their platforms on the generic Web 2.0 infrastructure, they often presented
themselves as utilities transmitting communication and information data.
But even if many big platforms still want people to think of them as such,
this layer of applied platforms is anything but a neutral utility exploiting a
generic resource (data): they built on the “ideological and technological”
foundations of Web 2.0, as Kaplan and Haenlein suggest in the definition
quoted above.

Indeed, most Web 2.0 platforms started out as indeterminate services
for the exchange of communicative or creative content among friends.
These services often emanated from community-bound initiatives—a
group of college students, photo aficionados, video enthusiasts—who
adopted a specific niche of online interaction and developed a mediated
routine practice. It is a common fallacy, though, to think of platforms as
merely facilitating networking activities; instead, the construction of plat-
forms and social practices is mutually constitutive. Sociality and creativity
happen while people are busy living their lives. Michel de Certeau, in The
Practice of Everyday Life (1984), proposes that people use tactics to negotiate
the strategies that are arranged for them by organizations or institutions.
That is precisely what happened with the development of social media plat-
forms and the apps built on top of them: users “negotiate” whether and
how to appropriate them in their quotidian habits.

Many of the habits that have recently become permeated by social media
platforms used to be informal and ephemeral manifestations of social life.

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E NGINE E R ING S O C I A L I T Y IN A CULTUR E OF CONNE CT I VI T Y [ 7 ]

Talking to friends, exchanging gossip, showing holiday pictures, scribbling
notes, checking on a friend’s well-being, or watching a neighbor’s home
video used to be casual, evanescent (speech) acts, commonly shared only
with selected individuals. A major change is that through social media,
these casual speech acts have turned into formalized inscriptions, which,
once embedded in the larger economy of wider publics, take on a different
value. Utterances previously expressed offhandedly are now released into a
public domain where they can have far-reaching and long-lasting effects.
Social media platforms have unquestionably altered the nature of private
and public communication.

From the late 1990s onward, Blogger (1999),Wikipedia (2001), Myspace
(2003), Facebook (2004), Flickr (2004), YouTube (2005), Twitter (2006),
and a wide array of ensuing platforms began to offer web tools that sparked
old and new online communication tactics. Most organizations operating
these platforms aimed at penetrating a particular online activity with their
coding technologies, and, ideally, their brand name would become the
marker for a specific mediated activity. Brands such as Twitter, YouTube,
MSN, and Skype have become synonyms for microblogging, video sharing,
chatting, and videoconferencing—novel communicative interactions these
platforms either co-developed or helped redesign. The pinnacle of a com-
pany’s success in permeating a social activity is when a brand turns into a
verb. The earliest example of such coding and branding phenomena in the
online world is the evolution of “googling,” now a synonym for online
search. Googling, following Gitelman’s definition above, could be called a
“ritualized collocation” that developed in a “larger economy of inscription.”
Online searching—for example, looking up the meaning of a word, check-
ing for the latest movies, or finding a specific scholarly source—has become
part of an everyday routine. Simultaneously, this routine nested itself in
the heart of a larger online economy of inscription, where search engines
form the valves of content distribution. Few platforms have reached the
stage where their brand has turned into a verb; at this point in time, “skyp-
ing” and “tweeting” perhaps come closest.2

Evidently, social media platforms, rather than being finished products,
are dynamic objects that are tweaked in response to their users’ needs and
their owners’ objectives, but also in reaction to competing platforms and
the larger technological and economic infrastructure through which they
develop (Feenberg 2009). In the year 2000, the Web that would come to
sustain online sociality and creativity was still a vast unexplored territory,
where boundaries between different mediated activities had yet to be
demarcated. It was a new frontier, a bonanza where rules and laws from the
“old” territories no longer applied and new ones had not crystallized yet.

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[ 8 ] The Culture of Connectivity

The earliest cultivators of this new land were search engines, browsers, and
web directories; of the many search engines that sprang up around the turn
of the millennium, Google Search—including its many specialized services—
has emerged victorious, leaving a few small engines trailing behind.3 Like
web browsers, search engines tend not to be presented as applications built
to search, navigate, and connect information on the WWW, but they are
conspicuously equated to the Web itself.4 Over the past decade, there has
been an unprecedented proliferation of social media platforms as each one
of them tried to occupy the largest possible chunk of this new terrain.
Whereas some have succeeded (Facebook, YouTube), others have waxed and
waned (Flickr, Myspace), and yet others have quietly disappeared (remem-
ber Xanga?). On top of this layer, millions of application program interfaces
(APIs) and services have been built that depend on the services of Facebook,
Google, Twitter, and so on, for their success, and new ones emerge every
day. The entire ecosystem of interconnected platforms and applications has
been in flux and will remain volatile for some time to come.

While it would be virtually impossible to inventory all platforms and
their individual evolutions, it makes analytical sense to distinguish various
types of social media. A major type involves what is called “social network
sites” (SNSs). These sites primarily promote interpersonal contact, whether
between individuals or groups; they forge personal, professional, or geo-
graphical connections and encourage weak ties. Examples are Facebook,
Twitter, LinkedIn, Google+, and Foursquare. A second category concerns
sites for “user-generated content” (UGC): they support creativity, fore-
ground cultural activity, and promote the exchange of amateur or profes-
sional content. Well-known UGC sites are YouTube, Flickr, Myspace,
GarageBand, and Wikipedia. On top of these, we can add the category of
trading and marketing sites (TMSs): these sites principally aim at exchang-
ing products or selling them. Amazon, eBay, Groupon, and Craigslist come
to mind as noteworthy examples. Another distinctive category consists of
play and game sites (PGS), a flourishing genre with popular games such as
FarmVille, CityVille, The Sims Social, Word Feud, and Angry Birds. This
classification of social media platforms is far from exhaustive, and integrat-
ing the various types into a single book-length argument would be undoa-
ble. For this reason, I will focus primarily on SNS and UGC sites here as the
main grounds on which online sociality and creativity have developed.

Important to add here is that there are no sharp boundaries between
various platform categories because carving out and appropriating one or
more specific niches is part of the continuous battle to dominate a segment
of online sociality. Facebook, whose prime target is to promote social net-
working, also encourages its users to add creative products such as photos

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or short videos. YouTube, a site primed to generate creative content by
users, can also be considered a social network site because communities
share specific postings (e.g., anime videos). Despite Google’s keen attempts
to turn YouTube into an SNS, it has remained primarily a site for UGC,
prompting the search company to start its own social networking service,
Google+, in May 2011. Meanwhile, Facebook and Google try to expand
their existing platforms with commercial and game services through part-
nerships and takeovers, making them also major players in the TMS and
PGS branches.

Sharply delineating various types of social media platforms is impossi-
ble, and yet identifying their objectives is key to understanding how plat-
forms build different niches of sociality and creativity or, for that matter,
commerce or entertainment. What we have seen over the past ten years is
that many platforms started out in one particular domain (e.g., online
search or social networking) and gradually encroached upon each other’s
territory while trying to contain users inside their own fenced-off turf.
Therefore, it is instructive to track how a few rapidly growing platforms
began to dominate online sociality, occupying as many niches as possible.
Google and Facebook each conquered a sizable chunk of this layer, to such
an extent that new developers are increasingly dependent on these plat-
forms for building new applications. We can only gain insight into the
mutual shaping of platforms and apps if we view them as part of a larger
online structure where every single tweak affects another part of the sys-
tem. Or, to put it more in general terms, the online ecosystem is embed-
ded in a larger sociocultural and political-economic context where it is
inevitably molded by historical circumstances.

1.3. MAKING THE WEB SOCIAL: CODING HUMAN CONNECTIONS

To get a better sense of the ecosystem’s emergence, we need to go back a bit
further in history. In the early 1970s, computers and information technol-
ogy had a dubitable reputation as instruments of control, mostly wielded
by Orwellian bureaucratic governments or by giant corporations. The coun-
terculture, born in the 1960s and matured in the early 1970s, paired values
of community and collectivity with the imperative of personal freedom and
empowerment—values that clashed with lingering associations of oppres-
sion and compromised individuality still hovering around information
technology. It was not until the late 1970s when computers began to be
seen as potential instruments of liberation rather than oppression. In a
lucid account of the gradual convergence of the counterculture with “geek”

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[ 10 ] The Culture of Connectivity

cyberculture, Fred Turner has demonstrated how visions of computer
networks gradually became linked to visions of “peer-to-peer adhocracy”
and “expressions of the true self” (2006: 3). A famous ad campaign for
Apple computers in 1984 showcased the Macintosh as a tool for user
empowerment, casting the company as a rebel amid powerful computer
industries and, by implication, positioned the Mac customer as a denizen
of the counterculture. The ultimate irony of this promoted image, as
pointed out by biographer Walter Isaacson, was that the Macintosh was a
closed and controlled system, “like something designed by Big Brother
rather than by a hacker” (2011: 162). But the rebel-geek image of working
in the interest of the public good rather than in the interest of Big Money
or Big Government was a significant precursor to the communal spirit later
adopted by advocates of web culture.

The invention of the World Wide Web in 1991 gave a new impetus to the
liaison between geek culture and counterculture. As the WWW consortium
began to build a global standardized infrastructure, communities of enthu-
siastic users began to churn out applications for the Web. The period when
users purportedly helped construct a new public space, outside corporate
control, only lasted a few years, however. Commercial developers like
Google, AOL, and Amazon, at the turn of the millennium, incorporated
the Web 1.0 and, virtually overnight, replaced dot.communism by dot.
commercialism. However, the spirit associated with egalitarianism and
community cocooning was rekindled in the early 2000s with the advent of
Web 2.0. The growth of social media platforms was (and still is) often
innocuously conflated with the rise of Web 2.0, and the participatory
potential of social media was sometimes erroneously attributed to the
Web’s technological design. Its built-in capacity for two-way communica-
tion supposedly rendered online media infinitely more democratic than
the old (one-way) media.5 Words like “interactivity” and “participatory”
described Web 2.0.’s potential to “talk back” and send messages instantly,
whereas previous media had wielded power over their one-way publishing
or broadcasting channels.

When new interactive platforms entered the scene, such as Blogger, Wiki-
pedia, Facebook, and YouTube, they promised to make culture more “partici-
patory,” “user centered,” and “collaborative.” Between 2000 and 2006, quite a
few media theorists claimed that Web 2.0 applications exponentially
enhanced the natural human need to connect and create, and they declared
early victory for the user. Henry Jenkins in 2006 welcomed us to the world of
convergence culture, a world “where old and new media collide, where grass-
roots and corporate media intersect, where the power of media producer and
the power of the media consumer interact in unpredictable ways” (2). Media

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theorist Axel Bruns (2008) hailed a new class of “produsers”— creators who
were also users and distributors. Wikipedia was recurrently held up as a
model of collaboration of selfless users who collectively developed a unique
product—an ever-expanding online encyclopedia—for the common good by
exploiting a communal space. The year 2006 turned out to be the apex of user
euphoria when Time magazine selected “You” as the Person of the Year,
trumpeting the world-changing potential of connected users: “It’s a story
about community and collaboration . . . about the many wresting power from
the few and helping one another for nothing and how that will not only
change the world, but also change the way the world changes.”6 For many
early adopters, belief that Web 2.0 was a communal and collaborative space
inspired their endeavors to build platforms, and echoes of this early idealistic
spirit resound to this day.

To some extent, the triumph of users over conventional mass media
proved to be justified, as Web 2.0 offered unprecedented tools for empow-
erment and online self-communication, but outsized expectations nour-
ished a premature winning mood among the web idealists. Perhaps a
symbolic rebalancing of Time’s earlier veneration of the user was the desig-
nation, four years later, of Mark Zuckerberg as Time’s Person of the Year.7
When Facebook’s CEO in 2010 took over the badge of honor from “You,” he
promised to make the world more open and transparent, echoing the uto-
pian spirit that had previously galvanized users. Platform owners eagerly
adopted similar rhetoric in their corporate mantras and promotional slo-
gans, such as “Do no evil” (Google), “Making the Web more social” (Face-
book), and “Share your pictures, watch the world” (Flickr-Yahoo). Web
companies tirelessly underscored their company’s mission to benefit the
common good. Zuckerberg has repeatedly stated that Facebook “wants
people to find what they want and connect them to ideas they like online.”8
Today social media companies still seem eager to align the benevolent halo
of early web technology with their “alternative” corporate ethos.

Rather than simply accepting or rejecting this ethos, I am interested in
deconstructing what meanings developers impute to their platforms’ goals
and functions—meanings that peculiarly reflect rhetorical attempts to
absorb utopian Web 2.0 connotations into corporate missions. The very
word “social” associated with media implies that platforms are user cen-
tered and that they facilitate communal activities, just as the term “partici-
patory” emphasizes human collaboration. Indeed, social media can be seen
as online facilitators or enhancers of human networks—webs of people
that promote connectedness as a social value. Individuals’ ideas, values,
and tastes are contagious and spread through human networks, but these
networks also affect what individuals do and think (Christakis and Fowler

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[ 12 ] The Culture of Connectivity

2009). By the same token, social media are inevitably automated systems
that engineer and manipulate connections. In order to be able to recognize
what people want and like, Facebook and other platforms track desires by
coding relationships between people, things, and ideas into algorithms.
The meaning of “social” hence seems to encompasses both (human) con-
nectedness and (automated) connectivity—a conflation that is cultivated
by many CEOs—and its deliberate ambiguity will play a major role in the
further elaboration of this book’s argument.

Companies tend to stress the first meaning (human connectedness)
and minimize the second meaning (automated connectivity). Zuckerberg
deploys a sort of newspeak when claiming that technology merely enables
or facilitates social activities; however, “making the Web social” in reality
means “making sociality technical.” Sociality coded by technology renders
people’s activities formal, manageable, and manipulable, enabling plat-
forms to engineer the sociality in people’s everyday routines.9 On the basis
of detailed and intimate knowledge of people’s desires and likes, platforms
develop tools to create and steer specific needs. A button that shows what
your friends watch, hear, read, and buy registers your peers’ tastes while
concurrently shaping them. Users, in general, also tend to emphasize
human connectedness when explaining a platform’s value in their lives.
Facebook helps its members to make and maintain contacts, but for many
ordinary users it is difficult to recognize how Facebook actively steers and
curates connections. Moreover, it is far from transparent how Facebook
and other platforms utilize their data to influence traffic and monetize
engineered streams of information. And yet connectedness is often invoked
as the pretense for generating connectivity, even now that data generation
has become a primary objective rather than a by-product of online sociality.

Besides the term “social,” concepts like “participation” and “collabora-
tion” get imputed a peculiar new meaning in the context of social media.
Users of content are supposedly “collaborators” who “co-develop” creative
products and thus enrich communities. Notions of community and group-
think abound in the rhetoric of platforms, and their echoes resounded par-
ticularly during the years 2004 to 2007. Indeed, many platforms, such as
YouTube and Flickr, started out as community initiatives; they were carried
by a group of video buffs and photo fans, respectively, eager to share their
creative products online. After their takeover by Google and, in the latter
case, Yahoo, the sites’ corporate owners kept nurturing the image of col-
lectivity and user-centered operation long after their strategies had trans-
mogrified to the commercial realm. Photographic and video content
became instrumental to the automated collection of data about meaning-
ful social relationships, propelled by such questions as, Who shares which

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images with whom? What images or videos are popular among which
groups? Who are the leading tastemakers in these communities?

A similar conflation of human connectedness and automated connec-
tivity happens when social activities are translated into algorithmic con-
cepts. In the offline world, people who are “well connected” are commonly
understood to be individuals whose connections are gauged by their quality
and status rather than their quantity. In the context of social media, the
term “friends” and its adjunct verb “friending” have come to designate
strong and weak ties, intimate contacts as well as total strangers. Their sig-
nificance is commonly articulated in one indiscriminate number. The term
“followers” has undergone a similar transformation: the word connotes
everything from neutral “groups” to “devotees” and “believers,” but in the
context of social media it has come to mean the sheer number of people
who follow your twit stream. From the technological inscription of online
sociality we derive that connectivity is a quantifiable value, also known as
the popularity principle: the more contacts you have and make, the more
valuable you become, because more people think you are popular and
hence want to connect with you.

What goes for people also holds for ideas or things that can be “liked”:
likability is not a virtue attributed consciously by a person to a thing or
idea, but is the result of an algorithmic computation derived from instant
clicks on the Like button.10 However, there is no quality assessment built
into these buttons: online quantification indiscriminately accumulates
acclamation and applause, and, by implication, deprecation and disap-
proval. The choice for a “like” button betrays an ideological predilection: it
favors instant, gut-fired, emotional, positive evaluations. Popularity as a
coded concept thus not only becomes quantifiable but also manipulable:
boosting popularity rankings is an important mechanism built into these
buttons. People who have many friends or followers are touted as influen-
tial, and their social authority or reputation increases as they receive more
clicks. Ideas that are “liked” by many people have the potential of becoming
trends. Friending, following, and trending are not the same functions, but
they derive from the same popularity principle underpinning the online
economy of social media.

Key terms used to describe social media’s functionality, such as the
“social,” “collaboration,” and “friends,” resonate with the communalist jar-
gon of early utopian visions of the Web as a space that inherently enhances
social activity. In reality, the meanings of these words have increasingly
been informed by automated technologies that direct human sociality.
Therefore, the term “connective media” would be preferable over “social
media.”11 What is claimed to be “social” is in fact the result of human input

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[ 14 ] The Culture of Connectivity

shaped by computed output and vice versa—a sociotechnical ensemble
whose components can hardly be told apart. The norms and values sup-
porting the “social” image of these media remain hidden in platforms’
technological textures. Not coincidentally, the same assumptions support-
ing the goal of making the Web more social—or, if you wish, of making
sociality more technical—also support the ideology of making online
sociality salable.

1.4. MAKING SOCIALITY SALABLE: CONNECTIVITY AS RESOURCE

Mark Zuckerberg’s promise to “make the Web more social” is inextricably
intertwined with his professed desire to “make the world more transpar-
ent.” Essential to the narrative of the social Web rendering a transparent
world was the implied assumption that if users proffer their true identity
when sharing personal data, platforms, for their part, would also carry a
robust ethic of openness and sharing.12 The rhetoric of transparency and
openness was supposedly rooted in and certainly inspired by the rhetoric
of community-based online sociality, which flourished during the first six
years of the new millennium. Most of these online groups, though, pre-
ferred to conduct their activities in a noncommercial, public space where
they could communicate free of government or market constraints. When
corporations took over online platforms, they were eager to co-opt the
rhetoric and spice their corporate image with values more commonly
attributed to the public sector. Indeed, companies liked to present them-
selves as pioneers of a joint public-private endeavor.

Legal and economic scholars further advanced these hybrid ideological
foundations. The networked information environment, as Yochai Benkler
asserted in 2006, would give rise to a flourishing nonmarket sector of
information and creative production. Web 2.0 strategies challenged both
market and state economies as they enabled the development of a coopera-
tive nonmarket, peer-production system that served communicative and
creative needs through networks of like-minded individuals. This “net-
worked public sphere” was fundamentally different from the existing
public sphere and would “emerge alongside the commercial mass-media
markets” (Benkler 2006: 10, emphasis added). In line with media theorists’
assessments at that time, we can discern a victorious appraisal of Web 2.0’s
potential to promote community over commerce, or, at the very least,
afford their peaceful coexistence. Among many examples of cooperative
endeavors, Wikipedia stands out as the poster child for the networked pub-
lic sphere—a model of nonprofit, nonmarket peer production emerging

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alongside commercial encyclopedic products, rather than in competition
with them.

Between 2000 and 2005, most platforms thrived on the enthusiasm of
users as they ran and operated their new virtual spaces, which were often
regarded as experiments in online citizenship and a reinvention of the
rules for democratic governance. The peaceful coexistence of market and
nonmarket peer-production, as divined by Benkler, gave social media plat-
forms the image of being alternative spaces, free from corporate and gov-
ernment constraints, where individuals could pursue their communicative
and creative needs and could regulate their own social traffic. In the early
years of YouTube, Wikipedia, and Flickr, user communities invested much
time and effort in keeping “their” channels clean from pollution by filtering
out pornographic and racist content. The promise of self-regulation and
community-supported surveillance worked well as long as the platforms
were relatively small and uniform in their user base.

As user bases began to explode after 2005, the investment required of
users became too big, and the focus of most platforms was diluted. At the
same time, many platforms were taken over by big media corporations or
were otherwise incorporated; the spirit of “nonmarket peer-production”
soon dwindled. During the ensuing years, between 2005 and 2008, corpo-
rate owners remained cautious about exposing their profit motives to user
communities, and in many instances kept nourishing the image of plat-
forms as peer-production structures that put users before profits. Because
user bases were still immersed in a participation spirit, platform manage-
ment had to walk a tightrope between a growth scenario—luring more cus-
tomers to sites—and pleasing its original, often assertive, users, who were
keenly aware of the value they added to the site’s market position (Clemons
2009; Potts 2009). The development of business models, balancing user par-
ticipation against for-profit strategies, posed a real challenge to the digital
media industry (Vukanovic 2009). A corporate management demanding
returns on investment faced the risk of being confronted by user protests or
boycotts. Platforms had to navigate between Silicon Valley’s venture capital-
ist culture, which pushed for quick turnovers and speedy IPOs, and the orig-
inal participatory spirit, which had caused the platforms to grow in the first
place. The safest strategy for many managers seemed to be expeditious
growth while conducting careful experiments with monetizing schemes.

Tapping into academics’ celebratory rhetoric of a new public sphere
of nonmarket collaboration, business managers and marketers glorified
the potential of mixed public-private entrepreneurship by absorbing
Wikipedian-style peer-production into their for-profit business models.
More precisely, they borrowed one particular element of Wikipedia’s

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[ 16 ] The Culture of Connectivity

innovative model—user participation—squeezing it into a for-profit busi-
ness and corporate governance structure. “Wikinomics,” an Internet busi-
ness concept launched by economists Don Tapscott and Anthony Williams
(2006), fostered the immanent merger of the market and nonprofit sector
in a networked information environment.13 They applauded Google and
Yahoo for creating “new public squares, vibrant meeting places where your
customers come back for the rich and engaging experiences”; echoing the
slogans of credit card companies, the authors significantly add: “Relation-
ships, after all, are the one thing you cannot commoditize” (Tapscott and
Williams 2006: 44).

Perhaps ironically, commoditizing relationships—turning connected-
ness into connectivity by means of coding technologies—is exactly what
corporate platforms, particularly Google and Facebook, discovered as the
golden egg their geese produced. Besides generating content, peer produc-
tion yields a valuable by-product that users often do not intentionally
deliver: behavioral and profiling data. Under the guise of connectedness
they produce a precious resource: connectivity. Even though the term “con-
nectivity” originated in technology, where it denotes computer transmis-
sions, in the context of social media it quickly assumed the connotation of
users accumulating social capital, while in fact this term increasingly
referred to owners amassing economic capital. Ten years after its start,
Wikipedia is perhaps an uncomfortable reminder of what the Web could
have been, as it is currently one of the few main sites that have not been
co-opted by big business. A quick look at today’s palette of the 100 biggest
social media platforms reveals that the overwhelming majority (almost 98
percent) are run by corporations who think of the Internet as a market-
place first and a public forum second—Wikipedia being the most notable
exception.14 And yet the rhetoric of a new public sphere was (and still is to
some extent) gratefully appropriated by businesses to salvage the virtues
of the corporate sphere. An endorsed fusion of nonmarket and for-profit
principles breathes the spirit of public collectivism, a spirit espoused by
those who regard the Web’s technical infrastructure as an opportunity for
opening up unimpeded social space.

Not surprisingly, the rapid rise of social media has also triggered a
standoff between social media adepts and staunch critics in academic cir-
cles. On the one hand, we find early enthusiasts who, in Benkler’s and
Jenkins’s footsteps, rejoice at the potential of Web 2.0 to empower users to
wield their new digital tools to connect and create, while developing a new
public sphere or a fused public-corporate sphere in the process. Social sci-
entists and journalists have argued that social media open up a new private
sphere or are at least an exciting experiment in mixing private and public.

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For instance, communications scholar Zizi Papacharissi (2010) argues that
social media platforms have introduced a space where boundaries between
private and public space have become fuzzy, claiming that this imprecision
opens up new possibilities for identity formation. Jeff Jarvis (2011) also
cheers the ambiguity; he attributes its redeeming potential to Facebook’s
and other sites’ ideal of openness and connectedness.15

On the other end of the spectrum, we find two types of detractors. Political
economists assailed the incorporation of social media, labeling them as failed
experiments in democratic participation or dismissing them as dependent on
a naive belief in the possibility of developing a new or alternative public
sphere alongside the existing public, private, and corporate spheres (Milberry
and Anderson 2009; de Peuter and Dyer-Witheford 2005; Skageby 2009). The
incorporation of platforms, some critics contend, hampered the development
of Web 2.0’s full potential as an instrument for participatory culture, self-
regulation, and democracy. Instead, commercial platforms introduced new
modes of surveillance, bartering privacy for the accumulation of social capital
(Cohen 2008; Haythornthwaite and Kendall 2010). Other critics of platforms
object to users’ being doubly exploited, both as workers—deliverers of data to
UGC and SNS platforms—and as consumers forced to buy back their own
processed data by relinquishing privacy (Terranova 2004; Petersen 2008).
More profoundly, some observe that the selling of privacy may be mistakenly
viewed as the natural consequence of users’ eagerness to connect and pro-
mote the self, rather than being understood as the corollary of a political
economy deeply rooted in audience commoditization (Fuchs 2011a).

In addition to adepts in political economy, a number of legal experts and
consumer groups have censured Facebook and other platforms for viola-
tion of privacy laws as they cultivated their newfound digital territory. Off-
setting the benign rhetoric of fading or fuzzy boundaries, courts and
lawyers often recognize a sharp dichotomy between private and public in
their affidavits when taking on cases against new media corporations.
Legal scholars have called for a recalibration of traditional juridical con-
cepts in response to social media platforms deliberately exploiting the fis-
sures of virtual space (Solove 2008; Nissenbaum 2010; Grimmelmann
2009). Privacy experts consistently defend the boundaries between pri-
vate, corporate, and public space to protect the rights of citizens against
platform owners’ calls for more “transparency”—a term that often appears
to apply to users only. Although my argument takes a nonjuridical perspec-
tive, I share legal experts’ concerns about privacy in social media.

As often happens with debates on contentious and multifaceted phenom-
ena, the issue gets mired in a myriad of polarized debates. Over the past
decade, connective media have often been framed as a confrontation

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[ 18 ] The Culture of Connectivity

between users and owners. Time magazine’s triumphant dictum about the
“many wresting power from the few” had it backward; according to some,
the new media were about the “few (platform owners) wresting control from
the many.” Even though I sympathize with the criticism of political econo-
mists that a forfeiture of privacy is a direct result of social media’s commod-
itization, I often find the users-versus-owners standoff to be unproductive
as an explanation. The resulting picture is mostly one of victims versus per-
petrators, of the powerless versus the powerful. Obviously, social media
services can be both intensely empowering and disturbingly exploitative;
sociality is enjoyed and exercised through precisely the commercial plat-
forms that also exploit online social activities for monetary gains.

Going back to the Alvin family, introduced at the beginning of this chapter,
we can see these two profoundly different views on user agency mirrored in
Pete and Sandra. Sandra represents the many users for whom social media
platforms provide a means not only of pleasure but of profitable business:
Blogger has been instrumental to her blog-publishing activities, and without
Twitter and Facebook, she would not have had an extensive network of follow-
ers and friends through whom she acquires paid assignments. Like many
(mostly young) entrepreneurs, she is taking advantage of those platforms that
monetize connectivity, while taking their sometimes-obscure commercial
strategies for granted. Pete Alvin exemplifies those users who are disappointed
with mainstream platforms taking over the community spirit they initially
cherished and nurtured. He feels uncomfortable giving away so much personal
information while gaining little transparency in return. The perspectives San-
dra and Pete represent are driven by different ideologies or worldviews; how-
ever, they are not mutually exclusive or incommensurate. Users can enjoy
connective media and still be critical of their functioning, for instance by tak-
ing a vocal stance on privacy issues or data control. Users are citizens as well as
consumers, professionals as well as assertive voters. Platform owners and app
developers are producing agents and social forces; they can exercise economic
and political power to change or sustain existing hierarchies and deploy their
technologies to do so. In sum, the heterogeneity of actors warrants a treatment
of sociality more complex than that of simply confirming the standoff.

1.5. THE ECOSYSTEM OF CONNECTIVE MEDIA IN A CULTURE

OF CONNECTIVITY

Academic discussions on social media generally mirror public debates,
often zooming in on breach of privacy laws, the assessment of viable busi-
ness models, and an analysis of users’ pleasures or of their exploitation.

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E NGINE E R ING S O C I A L I T Y IN A CULTUR E OF CONNE CT I VI T Y [ 19 ]

Although these debates are all valid and highly relevant, the aim of this
book is to focus not on privacy or commoditization as such, but on the
historical and cultural convolutions underpinning these tensions. In explor-
ing the short but rich history of social media platforms and the online
sociality that came along with their evolution, I want to expose the chang-
ing cultural norms and values on which these legal and economic challenges
are staked, as well as the technological, ideological, and socioeconomic
structures through which they are wagered. Privacy and commercialization
concerns are emblematic of the larger battle for control over personal and
collective information. Who can own someone’s profiling and behavioral
data? Who is allowed to interpret, aggregate, and sell information derived
from personal data? How do various platforms infiltrate everyday commu-
nicative and creative habits, and what power do users and owners have to
shape online sociality?16

Social media constitute an arena of public communication where norms
are shaped and rules get contested. Norms, as Michel Foucault (1980) has
theorized, constitute the social and cultural cement for grounding laws and
legal regulations. The power of norms, in the area of sociality, is much more
influential than the power of law and order. Contemporary methods of
power are methods whose “operation is not ensured by right but by tech-
nique, not by law but by normalization, not by punishment but by control”
(Foucault 1980: 89, emphases added). In less than a decade, the norms for
online sociality have dramatically changed, and they are still in flux. Pat-
terns of behavior that traditionally existed in offline (physical) sociality are
increasingly mixed with social and sociotechnical norms created in an
online environment, taking on a new dimensionality.17 For instance, the
norms for “sharing” private information and for accepting personalized
advertisements in someone’s social space were very different in 2004, in
the early stages of Web 2.0 space, than in 2012. Changes were implemented
gradually, and while users got habituated to new features, the norms for
privacy and accepting monetization were stretched accordingly. It is pre-
cisely these changes I am interested in: how they occur through specific
platforms and how they affect online sociality as such.

Normalization occurs detectably, through various levels of adjustments,
including technology features and terms of use. But it mostly happens
imperceptibly, through gradual transformations of user habits and chang-
ing levels of acceptance. In addition, norms are diffuse, as they have strik-
ingly different effects on individual users, particularly users from different
generations. Pete and Sandra showed dissimilar levels of appropriation;
their children’s experience of online sociality, for their part, is also very dif-
ferent from their parents’. For Nick and Zara, the use of social media is

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[ 20 ] The Culture of Connectivity

fully “normalized” in their everyday lives; not having gone through the
early evolutionary stages, they accept these platforms as conditions for
social interaction and are less likely to challenge their underpinnings. Once
new technologies and their use have gained a naturalized presence, it is
much harder to identify underlying principles and thus question their
raison d’être.

Hence, new norms for sociality and values of connectivity are not the
outcome but the very stakes in the battle to conquer the vast new territory
of connective media and cultivate its fertile grounds. Instead of identifying
how Facebook violates privacy laws or how Google’s legal transgressions
correlate with its monetizing schemes, my aim is to trace disputed defini-
tions of what counts as private or public, formal or informal, collaborative
or exploitative, mainstream or alternative—arguments that are part of an
ongoing clash between user tactics and platform strategies (van Dijck
2011). The battle described and analyzed has implications for society and
culture at large. Norms are part and parcel of a larger culture that is infused
with historical circumstances and political conditions. Legal scholar Julie
Cohen suggests that culture “is not a fixed collection of texts and practices,
but rather an emergent, historically and materially contingent process
through which understandings of self and society are formed and re-
formed.” To underscore the relevance of the ideological forces at work in
this dynamic and the theoretical thrust of its essential openness, she adds:

The process of culture is shaped by the self-interested actions of powerful insti-

tutional actors, by the everyday practices of individuals and communities, and

by ways of understanding and describing the world that have complex histories

of their own. The lack of fixity at the core of this conception of culture does not

undermine its explanatory utility; to the contrary, it is the origin of culture’s

power. (Cohen 2012, 17)

The “explanatory utility” of the culture of connectivity is to help us under-
stand social media’s historical expansion, the disputes arising in the proc-
ess, and the normative changes in which they result, even if the outcome is
transitory.

Several aspects of this culture will be highlighted in this book. First and
foremost, it is a culture inundated by coding technologies whose implica-
tions go well beyond the digital architectures of platforms themselves.
Sociality is not simply “rendered technological” by moving to an online
space; rather, coded structures are profoundly altering the nature of our
connections, creations, and interactions. Buttons that impose “sharing”
and “following” as social values have effects in cultural practices and legal

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E NGINE E R ING S O C I A L I T Y IN A CULTUR E OF CONNE CT I VI T Y [ 21 ]

disputes, far beyond platforms proper. Second, it is a culture where the
organization of social exchange is staked on neoliberal economic princi-
ples. Connectivity derives from a continuous pressure—both from peers
and from technologies—to expand through competition and gain power
through strategic alliances. Platform tactics such as the popularity princi-
ple and ranking mechanisms hardly involve contingent technological struc-
tures; instead, they are firmly rooted in an ideology that values hierarchy,
competition, and a winner-takes-all mind-set. And third, the culture of
connectivity evolves as part of a longer historical transformation charac-
terized by a resetting of boundaries between private, corporate, and public
domains. The steady weakening in recent decades of the public sector and
its gradual takeover by corporations forms a necessary backdrop for under-
standing the momentum for fast-growing connective media. Historically,
neoliberal clashes with social-democratic ideologies often revolved around
questions of the freedom of individuals and corporations vis-à-vis the
responsibilities of communities and states. Platform owners’ calls for more
transparency and openness, for maximum sharing and frictionless online
traffic, are entrenched in a neoliberal political agenda often advocating a
downsizing of the public sector.

The struggle to define networked sociality and to impute new norms and
meanings to this space began roughly in 2001 and still “lacks fixity,” to
reprise Julie Cohen’s words. For practical reasons, May 2012 serves as the
provisional endpoint of this study. If the aim is to understand how, in the
intervening period, online sociality evolved, it is not enough to study indi-
vidual platforms; rather, we need to apprehend how they coevolved in a
larger context of interpenetrating platforms and to dissect the cultural
logic undergirding this process. Therefore, I propose to look at distinct plat-
forms as if they were microsystems. All platforms combined constitute what
I call the ecosystem of connective media—a system that nourishes and, in
turn, is nourished by social and cultural norms that simultaneously evolve
in our everyday world. Each microsystem is sensitive to changes in other
parts of the ecosystem: if Facebook changes its interface settings, Google
reacts by tweaking its artillery of platforms; if participation in Wikipedia
should wane, Google’s algorithmic remedies could work wonders. It is
important to map convolutions in this first formative stage of connective
media’s growth because it may teach us about current and future distribu-
tion of powers.

Over the past ten years, several (groups of) academics have taken on the
study of singular platforms and reviewed their varied manifestations.
Needless to say, Google, Twitter, Facebook, and others have been the sub-
ject of numerous laudatory “inside” stories—mostly attempts to translate

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[ 22 ] The Culture of Connectivity

a platform’s commercial power to interested users or small businesses, or
to satisfy people’s curiosity about how things work inside “the plex.”18
Some platforms have received ample academic attention from scholars
analyzing their technological and operational complexities.19 Furthermore,
there have also been a number of general critical studies that examine the
Web’s technological specificities (Galloway 2004) or look at media ecologies
as emergent technical, sociopolitical, or historical systems (Fuller 2005;
Lovink 2012; Gitelman 2008). Last but not least, there are a few excellent
studies mapping the political and economic significance of social media
and focusing on how they leverage power at the levels of grassroots activ-
ists, governments, and corporations (Morozov 2011; Castells 2009; Fuchs
2011b). All these studies, as well as a score of others, provide valuable input
for the argument developed in this book.

The particular approach adopted in The Culture of Connectivity is aimed
at providing a critical history of roughly the first decade of connective
media, relating the analyses of five specific platforms to the larger ecosys-
tem and the culture in which it evolved. Rather than recounting or dis-
counting the success of these platforms, I try to articulate their specificities
as well as their differences by tracking their evolution. Dissecting these
platforms to find the principles of their anatomy, I will be looking for dif-
ferences and similarities in the way they function and operate. How did
individual platforms code and brand specific niches of everyday life? What
specific user functions did they develop, and how did users respond to a
platform’s changing technologies? How are the tactics and mechanisms of
individual platforms interrelated? On what ideological or political assump-
tions do they operate? What social and cultural norms underpin the eco-
system of connective media, how have they changed, and what role did
(and still do) users and owners play in this transformation? Such questions
require not just a comparative analysis of single platforms but also a con-
nective approach. Designing such an approach partly forms the challenge
of this study.

The ecosystem of connective media, as it has progressed since the turn
of the millennium, has comprised hundreds of players, engaged millions
of users, and affected both local and global normative and legal schemes.
To this day, the larger technological infrastructure on which social media
platforms are built is still volatile, and few, if any, platforms have yet
attained a stabilized meaning or standardized use in the context of this
unstable ecosystem (Feenberg 2009). I do not pretend in any way to cover
the territory in its entirety, but by tracing the fortunes of five prominent
platforms—Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, YouTube, and Wikipedia—I hope
to offer a systematic framework for understanding their interdependent

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E NGINE E R ING S O C I A L I T Y IN A CULTUR E OF CONNE CT I VI T Y [ 23 ]

development.20 The last chapter will particularly address the connections
between microsystems and ecosystem: how do all platforms interconnect
in an infrastructure that is increasingly compartmentalized? And how do
they live up to promises of making the Web more social and the world
more transparent? As we look into the future, the trend of engineered
platforms permeating our everyday lives will only gain significance with
the dazzling expansion of mobile apps and devices. The ecosystem, too,
adds importance in the wake of technological developments such as “Big
Data” processing. The year 2012 configures a momentary link between
the first decade of maturing platformed sociality and the next decade of
a projected Semantic Web with automated connectivity at its core.21

Notwithstanding the Alvins, this book does not depict the microbehav-
iors of users or the quotidian activities of families at one moment in his-
tory. It is rather about the ways in which social media have permeated
manifestations of sociality and creativity in the (Western) world over the
past decade. Teenagers and young adults can no longer imagine organizing
their social lives without Facebook at its center; news organizations have
accepted Twitter as one of their principal sources of breaking news; a pop
band that ignores the potency of YouTube’s viral videos might as well
denounce its fan base; Flickr and Facebook have become global distribution
centers of digital snapshots; and few students would still be able to write a
term paper without access to Wikipedia—or Google Scholar or Search, for
that matter. The Culture of Connectivity aims to offer an analytical model to
elucidate how platforms have become central forces in the construction of
sociality, how owners and users have helped shape and are shaped by this
construction; in other words, it wants to enhance a historical understand-
ing of social media’s impact on the everyday lives of families like the Alvins.

When critically examining the history of platforms and the ecosystem
through which they evolve, we need to create a functional anatomical
instrument, a multilayered analytical prism that allows us to see more than
just a technological platform deployed by users and run by owners. Since
there is neither a ready-made analytical model nor a clear-cut theory to
tackle this phenomenon consistently and systematically, the next chapter
sketches the outlines of a multilayered approach to social media.

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