Questions
2
AN ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT FOR ADHD
The Early Search for Alternative Treatment for ADHD
University of Maryland Global Campus
WRTG 391: Advance Research Writing
February 7, 2023
Introduction
Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in children. Although it is known as adult ADHD, early childhood is when symptoms first appear and frequently persist into adulthood. There is much research literature examining the cause(s) of and risk factors for ADHD to improve management and lower the likelihood that someone will develop it, but there are still no known causes of ADHD or risk factors. Depending on which symptoms are present in a person the most, there are three ways that ADHD can manifest: Predominantly Inattentive, Hyperactive-Impulsive, and Combined. Adult ADHD symptoms might not be as apparent as those in children; however, adult ADHD treatment is like childhood ADHD treatment. Since ADHD symptoms usually last into adulthood, and there is no exact cure for the disorder, people tend to seek early diagnosis so that they can get the help they need to bear the symptoms. At the same time, professionals overly diagnose patients to prevent incorrect diagnoses and hasty treatment. As a result, the impact of ADHD on the lives of individuals with the disorder can be difficult for themselves, their families, and the surroundings in which they end up. So, getting treatment for the disorder is highly recommended and advised, but aside from making things worse, ADHD medications can have very adverse side effects. And for this very reason, various research into seeking effective alternate treatment for the disorder will be highly beneficial in relieving ADHD symptoms and cause little to no severe side effects. (thesis statement)
Comment by Snezana Zabic: To hook the reader, see if you can find a lesser known fact in one of your sources that would make for a more engaging opening here. Comment by Snezana Zabic: After this very clear and informative introduction to the topic, write a synthesis-oriented thesis. A strong thesis statement in a synthesis paper such as this should begin with a signal phrase such as “Research studies have shown…” In WRTG 391, the thesis statement isn’t your argument or an accepted belief. It’s your synthesis of the conclusions in your sources. If they disagree, your thesis will be along the lines of “There’s disagreement among the sources about…. Some conclude that…, while others argue that…”
What is Some Potential Cause(s) or Risk Factor(s) of ADHD? Comment by Snezana Zabic: Headings aren’t very helpful in a short, 6-source synthesis paper. What the reader needs much more are transitions that either clarify the switch from one topic to another or show how your sources relate to one another.
The topic of ADHD has generated a lot of discussion and controversy. There is a growing group of people, including both professionals and the general audience with a diagnosis of ADHD, who argue that the major symptoms agreed upon and used by professionals for ADHD do not need labels. And these groups of people prefer ADHD to be looked at as a different state of mind rather than a mental disorder; they contend that individuals with limited attention spans and excessive energy are not what needs to change, but rather society’s expectations. However, with how detrimental the symptoms of ADHD can be to an individual’s health when left untreated, the three major symptoms such as predominantly Inattentive, Hyperactive-Impulsive, and Combined, have been made a medical disorder upon certain conditions being met. Furthermore, since the disorder starts in early childhood, there is an amass of research literature completed to find the underlying causes and risk factors of ADHD during early childhood. Comment by Snezana Zabic: Cite your sources that argue this. Comment by Snezana Zabic: Use signal phrases and parenthetical citations for each sentence that draws on a source. In this paper, and in the rest of your WRTG 391 papers, you won’t be making a proposal of your own. So if the highlighted sentences are indeed your commentary, omit it and instead refocus on the findings of your sources. Apply here and throughout your paper.
Many different fields can cause ADHD, like other psychiatric disorders, biological and psychosocial causes, social factors, and even genetic predisposition. Although there is research that suggests there is no conclusive link between maternal diseases and ADHD, pre- and post-term delivery was linked to an increased risk of ADHD. Also, conditions that affect newborns, including hypoglycemia, severe hyperbilirubinemia, chronic kidney disease, chronic liver disease, and immune disorders, present the onset of ADHD as another risk factor (Soheilipour et al., 2014). Considering how pre- and post-term delivery carries the risk of ADHD, likewise, additional factors, such as prenatal and postnatal environments, can affect brain development and result in the ADHD phenotype in children and can contribute to the development of ADHD (Rajendran et al., 2013). This suggests that such potential risk factors and causes for ADHD starting early makes it harder to create than prevent even earlier than the diagnosis age. Comment by Snezana Zabic: Whenever you reference a source for the first time, introduce them with an informative signal phrase and brief summary. Apply here and throughout the paper. Comment by Snezana Zabic: It’s great that you’re bringing up two sources on the same topic, but take more space to introduce each source and to explain how they relate to one another. In WA #2 in particular, each time you bring up two different sources on the same topic/theme, make sure to explain how they differ. Apply here and throughout your paper.
What is the Impact of ADHD in an Academic Environment?
With ADHD mainly persisting from childhood to adulthood, it can put much stress on the individual and their surroundings. Due to the severity of the symptoms at an early age sometimes and the hope to limit it during adulthood for more effortless daily functioning, some parents find themselves being proactive in adapting and intervening when necessary to achieve family goals, showing that they are aware of their children’s needs (Firmin & Phillips, 2009). Considering the lack of an actual cause for ADHD except for the general model of the three main symptoms diagnosis is based on, many how doctors overly diagnose patients with ADHD to avoid misdiagnosis and premature treatment. Consequently, due to the strain, ADHD puts on families and caretakers, parents prefer early diagnosis to receive early medication to keep symptoms manageable and perks earlier for ADHD since the disorder can be hard to deal with (Ainsworth, 2015).
According to the factors regarding the nature of ADHD and symptoms associated with it, Vitulano et al. (2014) claim that from fourth to ninth grade, substance use, such as marijuana, alcohol, and tobacco, can be influenced by the development of ADHD symptoms, which can be affected by peer rejection, school companionship attitudes, and internalizing issues. Ainsworth (2015) mentions that regarding ADHD individuals in educational contexts, heavy reliance on medication strains students, forcing them to apply for similar living arrangements for the condition even after they start university. Which indeed produces unfair learning environments due to the excessive use and reliance on accommodations (Ainsworth, 2015). Biased ADHD diagnoses, and medications for misbehavior or inattention in students, are harmful to both diagnosed and not diagnosed. At such early learning of managing ADHD symptoms, heavy reliance on medication now poses a threat of developing substance abuse disorder when they become adults. This calls for strict monitoring and alternate options to just using medicine to manage the disorder.
Alternative Treatment Options
All children should prioritize their health, but those with ADHD may need to focus even more. Shrestha et al. (2020) claim that according to the 2016–2017 National Survey of Children’s Health, there were 5.3 million children in the US with an ADHD diagnosis or 8.8% of the population between the ages of 3 and 17 years. 3.9 million of them are currently taking medication. This is consistent with Ainsworth’s claim that more children receiving ADHD diagnoses and receiving ADHD medication from their parents and teachers rather than being disciplined through physical activity and behavioral therapies are risk factors for dangerous drug dependence. (2015). Shrestha et al. (2020) mention that unlike the original treatment procedure laid out by the American Psychology Association of psychotherapy, first followed by medication, research was done to prove vice versa. However, a multi-randomization study conducted later concluded that starting with behavioral therapy before medication proved more effective (Shrestha et al., 2020). Alternative treatment methods such as training treatments like cognitive training, organization, behavioral management interventions, and physical activity are effective. Besides medications, integrative medicine or cognitive training are also effective alternative treatments for ADHD (Shrestha et al., 2020). Subsequently, Like Shrestha et al. (2020), Ainsworth pushes for alternative treatment options.
Conclusions
ADHD, one of the most widely recognized childhood neurodevelopmental disorders, which some part of society refuses to acknowledge as a medical condition, is a disorder that needs more than just recognition of its symptoms for diagnosis. It also requires Multimodal interventions. Ainsworth Rachel (2015) points out the necessity of preventing misdiagnosis and reducing the rise of ADHD, stating that “parents must also embrace alternatives to the immediate prescription of ADHD stimulant medication.” The erratic ADHD diagnostic methods allow for excessive diagnoses and stimulant treatments, resulting in unfair classroom settings due to excessive disability establishments. Although many parents use some version of complementary and alternative in ADHD, studies show mixed results. It is critical not to dismiss but to consider the implications of extensive ADHD prognosis and the school system. That way, adults and children can avoid the adverse effects of medication reliance. It is pretty evident the abundance of alternative treatment options that prove to be effective besides medication. However, more research on the psyche, physiological, and other inclusive interventions for ADHD is required.
References
Ainsworth, R. (2015). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Excuse or Epidemic?
Journal of Law & Education,
44(3), 453-462.
Expert discusses alternative treatment options for ADHD in children. (2005).
Brown University Child & Adolescent Psychopharmacology Update,
7(9), 1-5.
https://doi.org/10.1037/e543002012-001
Firmin, M. W., & Phillips, A. (2009). A qualitative study of families and children possessing diagnoses of ADHD.
Journal of Family Issues,
30(9), 1155-1174.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513×09333709
Shrestha, M., Lautenschleger, J., & Soares, N. (2020). Non-pharmacologic management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: A review.
Translational Pediatrics,
9(S1), S114-S124.
https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2019.10.01
Soheilipour, F., Shiri, S., AhmadKhaniha, H. R., Abdollahi, E., & Hosseini-Baharanchi, F. S. (2014). Risk factors for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a case-control study in 5 to 12 years old children.
Medicine and pharmacy reports,
93(2), 175-180.
https://doi.org/10.15386/mpr-1407
Vitulano, M. L., Fite, P. J., Hopko, D. R., Lochman, J., Wells, K., & Asif, I. (2014). Evaluation of underlying mechanisms in the link between childhood ADHD symptoms and risk for early initiation of substance use.
Psychology of Addictive Behaviors,
28(3), 816-827.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037504
Hi Ella,
Thanks for sharing your first draft! The sources are solid, and the paper is very informative.
Your revision should focus on incorporating your sources in a way that facilitates your readers’ comprehension of your synthesis. Make sure not to move from one source to another without discussing how those sources relate to one another. Keep in mind that your 6-source essay should answer one specific question: to what extent do recent research studies disagree or differ in their focus or conclusions about your topic?
When you transition from one source to another, signal to the readers immediately in which ways the second source differs from the first one in the paragraph. It’s much more important, in this paper, to show the different perspectives, opinions, or conclusions among the sources than their overlaps. The differences may be subtle, but you’re tasked with pointing them out.
Throughout the paper, especially when you first bring up a source, you should sum up its main argument. In addition to summaries, use paraphrases to include an important point from a source using your own words and sentence structure. Finally, include some choice direct quotes when you encounter a statement that you think is worded in an interesting way and needs to be included verbatim as opposed to being paraphrased.
In order to show that you’re fully synthesizing the four sources, strong signal phrases and transitional formulations are unavoidable. Some examples are: “X (publication year) and Y (publication year) came to different conclusions about…” “Although X (publication year) and Y (publication year) share an interest in… Y(publication year) focused on …. while Y (publication year) focused on…” Remember that you can and probably should bring up one source more than once in the essay.
When it comes to signal phrases in-text citations, I find these resources on the APA Style especially helpful:
Signal phrases:
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/quoting_paraphrasing_and_summarizing/signal_and_lead_in_phrases.html
In-text citations basics:
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_the_basics.html
Once your finish your body paragraphs, you should revise your introduction and come up with a more engaging “hook” and a strong, synthesis-based thesis.
Let me know if any questions arise during your revision and as you’re thinking of your WP3 as a continuation of this synthesis.
I look forward to grading your final draft of WP2!
Onward,
SZ
SEARCHING FOR THE ORIGINS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE 1
SEARCHING FOR THE ORIGINS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE 13
Searching for the Origins of Language
xxxxxx xxxxxxxx
University of Maryland Global Campus
WRTG 391: Advance Research Writing
xxxxxx xxxx
Introduction
Language is a ubiquitous feature of our lives. As such it may not seem to stand out as a particularly remarkable characteristic of being human, unless one considers what the human animal would be like without an ability to comprehend and use language. In fact, it could be argued that human language is one of the few traits which completely distinguishes human behavior from that of other animals, as so much of our success depends upon our manipulation of complex, language-based, communication. Language involves combining and recombining concepts. You use language in an internal language of thought. It can be used for communication through either speech, signing, or writing. However, in the context of linguistics, writing is considered an externalization which builds upon language, but is not itself language. The capacity for language, rather than the way it is externalized is the issue which has inspired the deepest curiosity. Although over the past seventy years many scientists have studied other animals’ communication systems in the search for insight into the origins of human language, it is cognition which now seems to hold the key to understanding its evolution. This literature review explores how the field expanded from theories about the nature of language, its relationship with animals’ communication systems and animal cognitive skills, to hypotheses about both why and how our ancestors developed a fully formed capacity for language.
What is the Definition of Language?
When people developed an interest in how human language evolved, they began to study animal communication systems. But to compare animal communication systems to human language they first had to have a clear understanding of the features that defined language. Although people have been analyzing language and describing its grammar for centuries, the modern field of linguistics developed only in the last century. Researchers looked to this emerging field, and to the work of Noam Chomsky in particular, for help in defining the essentials of human communication (Jackendoff & Pinker, 2005).
Human language is comprised of certain core elements which are present, be it in the use of speech or sign language: phonology (sound/spatial-temporal quality); semantics (symbols with meaning, like words); grammar (the particular rules of a given language); and syntax (a subset of grammar, e.g. more general rules referring to sentence structure) (Suzuki, et al. 2019; Jackendoff & Pinker, 2005). When considering syntax, Suzuki et al. suggest three criteria for compositional syntax: 1. That the meaning of individual signals, and combinations thereof reflect a context; 2. That the meaning of a combination of words is only understood because the component parts are meaningful; 3. And further, that the precise order of the signals (i.e. words in a sentence) can determine the meaning (2019). With this kind of analysis, researchers could determine if animal communication systems had these important characteristics of human language.
What is Unique About Human Language?
Some researchers came to the opinion that there is another essential aspect of human language which is not only characteristic but unique. Bolhuis et al. (2014) locate this uniqueness in a cognitive ability to combine mental representations, then recursively re-combine these to create mental representations of almost infinitely complex ideas—they call this ability “
merge.” They claim that merging concepts recursively is the core of human grammar, and that this is an innate and uniquely human capacity. The
merge concept suggests that these combinations are inherently pairwise: taking
n elements, placing them into pairs, and recombining those in nearly infinite compositions.
A competing if similar theory is termed “
Unification” (Jackendoff & Pinker, 2005). Based partly on considerations of the nature of idioms, Jackendoff and Pinker propose that a binary rearrangement of similar elements is inadequate to explain the richness of human language. Bolhuis et al. present no explanation for idioms where Jackendoff and Pinker insist that no explanation of human language can ignore sentences which are consistent with proper grammatical usage, but have an actual meaning which is different from their literal meaning (e.g. ‘
Bite the bullet’). The
merge theory assumes that all sentences are comprised of smaller elements for which we have mental representations. The
Unification theory proposes that mental representations are much more flexible, even for an entire sentence, which would be the case for an idiom like ‘
Stick ‘em up.’ Humans can think non-linguistically, but a large portion of our stream of consciousness and mental life is in the form of language.
The similarity in both the
Unification and
merge theories is that we compose sentences by recombining elements. It is these processing characteristics which researchers generally agree most fully typify the core of human language. Therefore, these features are what were looked for as a basis for comparison in animal communication systems, as well as in the cognitive capabilities of animals.
Potential Insights into the Evolution of Human Language?
Just as clearer definitions about human language developed in the latter half of the 20th century represented a major inflection point in answering questions about the evolution of human language; further understanding whether language is primarily a behavior or a cognitive function and therefore how investigations into its evolution should be pursued has been an ongoing debate which represent a second inflection point.
Animal Communication Systems
Clearly animals communicate too. When researchers first began investigating the question of the evolution of human language they looked mainly to our closest genetic relatives, the great apes, and to birdsong, as the most complex observed example of animal communication. Everyone who has heard birdsong can recognize that it consists of different notes, combined in different orders, and one might imagine that it is used for communication rather than expending energy for no purpose. Writing of chick-a-dee birdsong, Hailman observed that “the staggering variety of call-types created from combinations of note-types and their repetitions is not likely to be haphazard variation” (1985, p. 1). In 1985 there were very high hopes for finding close analogies between human and animal communication as suggested by the title
The ‘chick-a-dee’ calls of Parus atricapillus: A recombinant system of animal communication compared with written English (Hailman).
However, the study of animal communication systems did not provide clear answers quickly and work continues today. In their paper Suzuki et al. give a brief overview of the current state of the field (2019). They describe observations which suggest that various species may combine predator warning calls with contact calls. The significant point is that two calls with consistently observed responses (i.e. meanings) may be combined in a different context to provoke an entirely different response. For instance, paired meanings in putty-nosed monkeys are given as a possible example of idiomatic usage (Suzuki et al., 2019, p. 5). However, this may simply be a recombination of two sounds, each with a meaning, where the combined sound has a third meaning such as in the German word Kühlschrank—kühl meaning cool, and Schrank meaning cupboard, which in combination means refrigerator. There is not evidence in animal communication of anything approaching a sentence.
A different research path was to try to teach language to our closest genetic relatives (chimps, gorillas, and bonobos). They were either taught to sign or to touch a symbolic interface, as it was clear that they could not mimic sounds. While people enthused over early results, showing that apes could learn hundred of signs, combinations were another matter. In fact, one of the more impressive outcomes was announced in 1977, when a chimpanzee named Washoe saw a swan in the park and signed ‘Water + Bird’ (Suzuki et al., 2019). However, given that there were never repeated examples of this kind of spontaneous generation of a combination of words/signs to indicate a concept it is not clear that Washoe’s communication even rose to the level of the putty-nosed monkey’s Kühlschrank.
Cognitive Insights into the Evolution of Human Language
The research program in the latter half of the previous century attempting to teach great apes human language highlighted the simplicity of great ape signaling behavior, but this stands in great contrast to ongoing research showing the sophistication of great ape cognitive capacities. Tecumseh Fitch points out that “animal signals do not equal animal concepts” (2019, p. 4). In fact, there is now clear evidence that many species have considerable cognitive sophistication. Dolphins for example can demonstrate in their behavioral responses that they are able to interpret complex sentences with grammatical order, as well as concepts like ‘same’ and ‘different’ (Tecumseh Fitch, 2019). Yet they have never been successfully trained to communicate in a way which could be viewed as even roughly translating to the system of grammar and semantics that underlies human language.
Many animals display evidence of highly complex mental representations, intricate concepts, tool use, social relationships, planning for the future, and mental maps of their environment (Tecumseh Fitch, 2019). There is always skepticism about recognizing whether animals have any cognitive capacity because they cannot directly tell us. However, researchers are conducting more subtle experiments to reveal animal cognition. Tecumseh Fitch (2019) describes evidence that some animals even have a theory of mind, which does not begin to develop in humans until about age 3-5. This ability to consider the mental state of other actors and what information they have can be deduced from the fact that many animals will wait to hide something desirable until a competitor is not looking, or that they can recognize themselves in a mirror. Another example of social cognitive sophistication was illustrated in experiments conducted by Martin et al. (2014). They demonstrated that in certain strategy games which require guessing what your partner is likely to do, pairs of chimps performed better than pairs of humans.
A different cognitive capacity is the perception of sequencing which is critical in syntactic structure. Jensen et al. (2019) designed an experiment on sequence perception which also showed that it was not simply rewards that governed the monkeys ability to make cognitive inferences like, if
a is to the left of
b, and
b is to the left of
c, then it follows that
a is to the left of
c. Illustrative of trends in the field, Jensen’s senior coauthor, Herbert Terrace, famously lead a project in the 1970s attempting to teach language to a chimpanzee subject whom they playfully named, Nim Chimpsky (Terrace et al., 1979). Clearly in the intervening decades Terrace shifted his focus from animal communication to animal cognition as a central means of insight into the evolution of human language.
Studies about animal communication like, those done with Nim Chimpsky, clearly showed that chimpanzees are not good vocal mimics, but the fact that they were able to learn hundreds of signs, indicated that they are excellent gestural mimics. Mirror neurons are nerve cells that fire either when you do a motion, or you see someone else perform a motion you recognize. Arbib (2017) points out that the presence of mirror neurons in primates and their ability to learn, mimic, and refine hand motions could represent an important evolutionary link toward language with our closest genetic relatives. Going even further, in a review Tecumseh Fitch (2017) argues using evidence from various animal behavior studies, that great ape cognitive sophistication reaches a level where it supplies all the elements necessary for language to evolve.
What Drove the Evolution of Human Language?
Once there was better clarity about exactly what defines human language and whether it is best observed as a cognitive process, it became possible to ask what selective forces drove its evolution. Dunbar (2017) hypothesizes that human language evolved specifically to facilitate the social interactions necessary for humans to form larger social groups. Dunbar analyzed data showing primate species that live in larger groups have larger neocortical surface areas and spend more time engaged in the mutual grooming (2017, p. 209). Primates who live in large groups ensure their stability by forming alliances using these behaviors, but this system of mutual grooming requires a considerable investment of time. The implication Dunbar (2017) drew is that for group sizes typical of early humans, maintaining social cohesion by grooming would have demanded more than twelve hours a day (longer than there is daylight most places). Clearly humans would have needed something to allow bonding with more than one potential ally at a time to support stability in groups as large as they did. Being able to gossip and bond using language fit the bill, especially since it could be done at night.
Another researcher, Donald (2017) proposes a quite different alternative, namely that early humans developed a protolanguage to think about tools, and perhaps communicate about them in gestures. Using paleo genetic analysis and records of human tool construction, Donald (2017) reconstructed the gradual emergence of complex tools made early in human history and finds that the “…archeological evidence suggests strongly that human ancestors were
skilled [tool makers] long before they were
articulate” (p. 205). The cognitive capacity required for making complex multi-part tools, and passing the knowledge along, provided the impetus for tool-making and language to co-evolve.
How Did Human Language Evolve?
The issue of exactly
how speech developed is addressed in some detail by Dunbar (2017) and Donald (2017). Donald proposes that there must have been a stepwise co-evolution from protolanguage and moderately complex tools to fully developed language embedded in a complex culture of tool-makers (2017). Donald emphasizes the connections between cognitive skills necessary for complex tool-making and language: working memory, episodic memory, sequencing, and hierarchical analysis. He proposes multiple stages for development from a gestural “
mimetic” protolanguage, after which the eventual evolution language would have only needed cultural drivers as the underlying cognitive capacity necessary would have already been developed through tool-making. Basically by the time early humans could make bows and arrows the cognitive capacity existed for fully human language to develop.
Dunbar (2017) discusses evidence pointing to the development of voluntary breath control needed for speech. He explains that the breath control for speech requires such an enlarged thoracic nerve that the thoracic spine was modified to accommodate it (Dunbar, 2017). Consequently, the fossil records show which hominids had breath control. He also considered the issue of how the steps on the road to language would have been rewarded. He suggests that laughter would have been the first rewarding vocal bonding signal (Dunbar, 2017, p. 210). Implied is that it is both rewarding and pro-social even in modern humans. He then speculates that music or chanting may have played the next a role, citing examples of modern humans using songs without meaningful words to bond while working together (Dunbar, 2017). The final stage, developing language sophisticated enough to discuss events and individuals, is not as elaborated. But Dunbar (2017) does note that in modern workplaces a large part of verbal communication is not about work but instead centers around social chatter, and gossip about mutual acquaintances, or famous people.
Conclusion
Despite the discovery of complex cognition in animals, especially primates, the most unique attribute of human language, the process of recombining mental representations, has yet to be conclusively demonstrated in animals. Tecumseh Fitch (2019) emphasizes how important it would be to discover whether the
merge process is present in animal cognition, saying that it is crucial to “…explore in detail animals’ abilities to combine concepts. To the extent that they can do so in a flexible, hierarchical manner, I think we can see the germs of the recursive symbolic system that underlies human linguistic concepts” (p. 6). Semantics (i.e. meaningful concepts) are clearly present in animals and can include sophisticated understandings of social relationships (Tecumseh Fitch, 2017). The question of whether these concepts can be recombined in a way which resembles recursive syntax is less clear. If the recursive ability which underlies syntax could be found in the cognitive systems of animals, then animals may have something closer to a language of thought than we are currently able to demonstrate. Given the direction that research has previously gone and its current projections, it seems unlikely that the study of animal communication systems alone will provide the breakthrough insights into the origins of human language.
Tecumseh Fitch suggests that human language may have had multiple evolutionary forces which drove it (2017). The advantage gained by being able to construct complex tools may have been the force that led to the emergence a hierarchical language of thought,
merge, perhaps first expressed in gestures. But Fitch contends that this does not preclude and could in fact complement Dunbar’s ideas about the advantages of bonding in large social groups (2017). Hominids could have also been using drumming and chanting-like sounds first, then music to bond, leading eventually to something like words. From a proposed universal grammar to a range of ideas about how language began, progress in our understanding of how human language evolved continues.
References
Arbib, M. A. (2017). Toward the Language-Ready Brain: Biological Evolution and Primate Comparisons. Pschonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(1), 142-150.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1098-2
Bolhuis, J. J., Tattersall, I., Chomsky, N., & Berwick, R. C. (2014). How Could Language Have Evolved?
PLoS Biology, 12(8), 1–6.
https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001934
Donald, M. (2017). Key cognitive preconditions for the evolution of language.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(1), 204–208.
https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.3758/s13423-016-1102-x
Dunbar, R. I. M. (2017). Group size, vocal grooming and the origins of language.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 209–212.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1122-6
Hailman, J. P., Ficken, M. S., & Ficken, R. W. (1985). The “chick-a-dee” calls of Parus atricapillus: A recombinant system of animal communication compared with written English.
Semiotica, 56(3/4), 191.
https://www.degruyter.com/journal/key/SEMI/html
Jackendoff, R., & Pinker, S. (2005). The nature of the language faculty and its implications for evolution of language (Reply to Fitch, Hauser, and Chomsky).
Elsevier Cognition, 97, 211-225.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2005.04.006
Jensen, G., Alkan, Y., Ferrera, V. P., & Terrace, H. S. (2019). Reward associations do not explain transitive inference performance in monkeys.
Science Advances, 5(7), eaaw2089.
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw2089
Martin, C. F., Bhui, R., Bossaerts, P., Matsuzawa, T., & Camerer C. (2014, June 05). Chimpanzee choice rates in competitive games match equilibrium game theory predictions.
Scientific Reports, 4, 5182.
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep05182
Suzuki, T. N., Wheatcroft, D., & Griesser M. (2019). The syntax–semantics interface in animal vocal communication.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 375: 20190046.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0405
Tecumseh Fitch, W. (2017). Empirical approaches to the study of language evolution.
Psychomonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 3-33.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1236-5
Tecumseh Fitch, W. (2019, November 18). Animal cognition and the evolution of human language: why we cannot focus solely on communication.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
B, 375: 20190046.
http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0046
Terrace, H. S., Petitto, L. A., Sanders, R. J., & Bever, T. G. (1979). Can an ape create a sentence?
Science, 206(4421), 891-902.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.504995
Length: 2000-3000 words
*Format: APA
•
Sources: a total of at least 10 sources, all of which should be from scholarly journals or credible trade journals. You should find your sources through library searches.
If you cite sources from Dyebsites or popular journals, these sources should be in addition to the 10 sources you have cited from scholarly or trade journals.
*Topic: Please use the same topic that you used for writing assignments #1 and #2. It is recomm that you focus on or expand on the essay that you wrote for writing assignment #2. You will con with the topic you have selected and will conduct additional searches in the library databases.
Sources: a total of at least 10 sources, all of which should be from scholarly journals or credible trade journals. You should find your sources through library searches.
If you cite sources from websites or popular journals, these sources should be in addition to the 10 sources you have cited from scholarly or trade journals.
.Topic: Please use the same topic that you used for writing assignments #1 and #2. It is recommended that you focus on or expand on the essay that you wrote for writing assignment #2. You will continue with the topic you have selected and will conduct additional searches in the library databases, hopefully, focusing the topic more, and determining the 10 or more sources to use in this essay. Please note that this is a review of the literature on a topic. It is not a persuasive essay using sources to support a point.
Rather it is an overview of the current research on a topic.
Integration of Sources: At least eight sources must be cited in the body of the essay. You may cite sources in your introduction to help you define terms, and you may cite sources in your conclusion to help you direct the reader to further inquiry. However, the body of the essay should synthesize at least 8 sources.
Strategies in Developing the Topic for this Essay
Up to this point in the semester, you have completed an annotated bibliography on your chosen topic.
You have also incorporated and synthesized six sources into writing assignment #2. The work you have completed for these assignments provides a solid foundation for writing assignment #3. In this assignment, you will synthesize the ideas of at least 10 sources in a synthesis essay, or literature review.
For your annotated bibliography, you selected a topic based on your interests and, potentially, your major. You constructed a list of five references and summarized and critically analyzed them in 150-200 words each. You then completed the the six-source essay and synthesized sources. Through this process, you may have seen patterns in the scholarly literature in the topic on which you conducted research. For example, consider the following examples:
·
·
You may have researched studies in criminal justice and found that there are varying opinions
on how to respond to criminal behavior among youth.
· You may have researched studies in psychology and found that counseling strategies for victims of domestic abuse tend to fall into four categories.
·
You may have researched articles on gerontology and found studies that answered three basic questions on how older adults respond to training for physical performance.
·
You may have researched articles on environmental management and found studies on
climate change. You noticed that various demographic factors influence whether individuals
believe in climate change and, if so, whether they believe it is caused by human activity.
In the synthesis essay, you will focus your research efforts in a particular area, as a response to what you found while writing the annotated bibliography and in constructing the
four-source and six-source essays. You will then conduct more research and synthesize your
findings in this literature review.
Please note that the annotated bibliography, the four-source essay, and the six-source essay
represent a journey in your research.
You might decide to disregard several of the articles you analyzed in the critical annotated bibliography or in the following two essays because they do not speak to the specific area on which you have decided to write your multiple-source literature review.
How to organize the multiple-source essay:
You will divide the essay into categories. Each category will be labelled with a heading.
For you to see this concept with a real-life example, you can access a sample synthesis or literature review from a psychology student by clicking here, or you can find it in in Week 7
Content/Resources under PSYCHSample LitReview.
The student authors her paper on the following topic: Emotional Eating: The Perpetual Cycle of Mood-Food Influence. She her literature into the following categories, which are used as headings throughout the paper:
· Influence of Mood on Eating Behavior
· Gender Differences
· Influence of Eating Behavior on Later Moods
·
· Chronic Stress Response Network
· Notice how she synthesizes and integrates the research into the distinct categories, labeled by
· headings.
·
· Strategies in Developing Categories
· When you have focused on your topic, determine how you will divide the literature. In other words, consider the following examples we described above:
You may have researched studies in criminal justice and found that there are varying opinions
on how to respond to criminal behavior among youth.
You might divide the paper as follows:
Introduction
Body
•Category 1: “A” view on responding to criminal behavior.
Category 2: “B” view on responding to criminal behavior.
· Category 3: “C” view on responding to criminal behavior
· Category 4; “D” view on responding to criminal behavior.
You may have researched articles on gerontology and found studies that answered three basic questions on how older adults respond to training for physical performance.
You might divide the paper as follows:
Introduction
Body
Question 1
Question 2
Question 3
Conclusion
You may have researched articles on environmental management and found studies on
climate change. You noticed that various demographic factors influence whether individuals
believe in climate change and, if so, whether they believe it is caused by human activity
Point of View
For this essay, you will use third-person point of view.
Please do not use first person point of view (e.g., “I,” “me,” “we”) in writing this essay.
In addition, please do not use second-person point of view (“you” or “your”) in writing this essay. For example, instead of “Smith argues that, as a director, you have a duty to coordinate cybersecurity efforts…” you would write, “Smith argues that directors have a duty to coordinate
cybersecurity efforts.
APA STYLE
Week 3 will be a helpful resource. In summary, you should observe the following:
· Use one-inch margins.
· Double space.
· Use size 12 Times New Roman font.
Include a running head.
· Include page numbers.
· Include a title page.
· Include a “References” page on which you list the articles in APA style
Do not include an abstract. This paper is not long enough to warrant an abstract.
2
AN ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT FOR ADHD
The Early Search for Alternative Treatment for ADHD
University of Maryland Global Campus
WRTG 391: Advance Research Writing
February 7, 2023
Introduction
Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in children. Although it is known as adult ADHD, early childhood is when symptoms first appear and frequently persist into adulthood. There is much research literature examining the cause(s) of and risk factors for ADHD to improve management and lower the likelihood that someone will develop it, but there are still no known causes of ADHD or risk factors. Depending on which symptoms are present in a person the most, there are three ways that ADHD can manifest: Predominantly Inattentive, Hyperactive-Impulsive, and Combined. Adult ADHD symptoms might not be as apparent as those in children; however, adult ADHD treatment is like childhood ADHD treatment. Since ADHD symptoms usually last into adulthood, and there is no exact cure for the disorder, people tend to seek early diagnosis so that they can get the help they need to bear the symptoms. At the same time, professionals overly diagnose patients to prevent incorrect diagnoses and hasty treatment. As a result, the impact of ADHD on the lives of individuals with the disorder can be difficult for themselves, their families, and the surroundings in which they end up. So, getting treatment for the disorder is highly recommended and advised, but aside from making things worse, ADHD medications can have very adverse side effects. And for this very reason, various research into seeking effective alternate treatment for the disorder will be highly beneficial in relieving ADHD symptoms and cause little to no severe side effects.
What is Some Potential Cause(s) or Risk Factor(s) of ADHD?
The topic of ADHD has generated a lot of discussion and controversy. There is a growing group of people, including both professionals and the general audience with a diagnosis of ADHD, who argue that the major symptoms agreed upon and used by professionals for ADHD do not need labels. And these groups of people prefer ADHD to be looked at as a different state of mind rather than a mental disorder; they contend that individuals with limited attention spans and excessive energy are not what needs to change, but rather society’s expectations. However, with how detrimental the symptoms of ADHD can be to an individual’s health when left untreated, the three major symptoms such as predominantly Inattentive, Hyperactive-Impulsive, and Combined, have been made a medical disorder upon certain conditions being met. Furthermore, since the disorder starts in early childhood, there is an amass of research literature completed to find the underlying causes and risk factors of ADHD during early childhood.
Many different fields can cause ADHD, like other psychiatric disorders, biological and psychosocial causes, social factors, and even genetic predisposition. Although there is research that suggests there is no conclusive link between maternal diseases and ADHD, pre- and post-term delivery was linked to an increased risk of ADHD. Also, conditions that affect newborns, including hypoglycemia, severe hyperbilirubinemia, chronic kidney disease, chronic liver disease, and immune disorders, present the onset of ADHD as another risk factor (Soheilipour et al., 2014). Considering how pre- and post-term delivery carries the risk of ADHD, likewise, additional factors, such as prenatal and postnatal environments, can affect brain development and result in the ADHD phenotype in children and can contribute to the development of ADHD (Rajendran et al., 2013). This suggests that such potential risk factors and causes for ADHD starting early makes it harder to create than prevent even earlier than the diagnosis age.
What is the Impact of ADHD in an Academic Environment?
With ADHD mainly persisting from childhood to adulthood, it can put much stress on the individual and their surroundings. Due to the severity of the symptoms at an early age sometimes and the hope to limit it during adulthood for more effortless daily functioning, some parents find themselves being proactive in adapting and intervening when necessary to achieve family goals, showing that they are aware of their children’s needs (Firmin & Phillips, 2009). Considering the lack of an actual cause for ADHD except for the general model of the three main symptoms diagnosis is based on, many how doctors overly diagnose patients with ADHD to avoid misdiagnosis and premature treatment. Consequently, due to the strain, ADHD puts on families and caretakers, parents prefer early diagnosis to receive early medication to keep symptoms manageable and perks earlier for ADHD since the disorder can be hard to deal with (Ainsworth, 2015).
According to the factors regarding the nature of ADHD and symptoms associated with it, Vitulano et al. (2014) claim that from fourth to ninth grade, substance use, such as marijuana, alcohol, and tobacco, can be influenced by the development of ADHD symptoms, which can be affected by peer rejection, school companionship attitudes, and internalizing issues. Ainsworth (2015) mentions that regarding ADHD individuals in educational contexts, heavy reliance on medication strains students, forcing them to apply for similar living arrangements for the condition even after they start university. Which indeed produces unfair learning environments due to the excessive use and reliance on accommodations (Ainsworth, 2015). Biased ADHD diagnoses, and medications for misbehavior or inattention in students, are harmful to both diagnosed and not diagnosed. At such early learning of managing ADHD symptoms, heavy reliance on medication now poses a threat of developing substance abuse disorder when they become adults. This calls for strict monitoring and alternate options to just using medicine to manage the disorder.
Alternative Treatment Options
All children should prioritize their health, but those with ADHD may need to focus even more. Shrestha et al. (2020) claim that according to the 2016–2017 National Survey of Children’s Health, there were 5.3 million children in the US with an ADHD diagnosis or 8.8% of the population between the ages of 3 and 17 years. 3.9 million of them are currently taking medication. This is consistent with Ainsworth’s claim that more children receiving ADHD diagnoses and receiving ADHD medication from their parents and teachers rather than being disciplined through physical activity and behavioral therapies are risk factors for dangerous drug dependence. (2015). Shrestha et al. (2020) mention that unlike the original treatment procedure laid out by the American Psychology Association of psychotherapy, first followed by medication, research was done to prove vice versa. However, a multi-randomization study conducted later concluded that starting with behavioral therapy before medication proved more effective (Shrestha et al., 2020). Alternative treatment methods such as training treatments like cognitive training, organization, behavioral management interventions, and physical activity are effective. Besides medications, integrative medicine or cognitive training are also effective alternative treatments for ADHD (Shrestha et al., 2020). Subsequently, Like Shrestha et al. (2020), Ainsworth pushes for alternative treatment options.
Conclusions
ADHD, one of the most widely recognized childhood neurodevelopmental disorders, which some part of society refuses to acknowledge as a medical condition, is a disorder that needs more than just recognition of its symptoms for diagnosis. It also requires Multimodal interventions. Ainsworth Rachel (2015) points out the necessity of preventing misdiagnosis and reducing the rise of ADHD, stating that “parents must also embrace alternatives to the immediate prescription of ADHD stimulant medication.” The erratic ADHD diagnostic methods allow for excessive diagnoses and stimulant treatments, resulting in unfair classroom settings due to excessive disability establishments. Although many parents use some version of complementary and alternative in ADHD, studies show mixed results. It is critical not to dismiss but to consider the implications of extensive ADHD prognosis and the school system. That way, adults and children can avoid the adverse effects of medication reliance. It is pretty evident the abundance of alternative treatment options that prove to be effective besides medication. However, more research on the psyche, physiological, and other inclusive interventions for ADHD is required.
References
Ainsworth, R. (2015). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Excuse or Epidemic?
Journal of Law & Education,
44(3), 453-462.
Expert discusses alternative treatment options for ADHD in children. (2005).
Brown University Child & Adolescent Psychopharmacology Update,
7(9), 1-5.
https://doi.org/10.1037/e543002012-001
Firmin, M. W., & Phillips, A. (2009). A qualitative study of families and children possessing diagnoses of ADHD.
Journal of Family Issues,
30(9), 1155-1174.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513×09333709
Shrestha, M., Lautenschleger, J., & Soares, N. (2020). Non-pharmacologic management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: A review.
Translational Pediatrics,
9(S1), S114-S124.
https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2019.10.01
Soheilipour, F., Shiri, S., AhmadKhaniha, H. R., Abdollahi, E., & Hosseini-Baharanchi, F. S. (2014). Risk factors for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a case-control study in 5 to 12 years old children.
Medicine and pharmacy reports,
93(2), 175-180.
https://doi.org/10.15386/mpr-1407
Vitulano, M. L., Fite, P. J., Hopko, D. R., Lochman, J., Wells, K., & Asif, I. (2014). Evaluation of underlying mechanisms in the link between childhood ADHD symptoms and risk for early initiation of substance use.
Psychology of Addictive Behaviors,
28(3), 816-827.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037504
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