2 pages
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2 scholarly references
Artif Intell Rev (2019) 52:1495–1545
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-017-9599-6
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining
and sentiment analysis
Fatemeh Hemmatian1 · Mohammad Karim Sohrabi1
Published online: 18 December 2017
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2017
Abstract Opinion mining is considered as a subfield of natural language processing, infor-
mation retrieval and text mining. Opinion mining is the process of extracting human thoughts
and perceptions from unstructured texts, which with regard to the emergence of online social
media and mass volume of users’ comments, has become to a useful, attractive and also
challenging issue. There are varieties of researches with different trends and approaches i
n
this area, but the lack of a comprehensive study to investigate them from all aspects is tan-
gible. In this paper we represent a complete, multilateral and systematic review of opinion
mining and sentiment analysis to classify available methods and compare their advantag
es
and drawbacks, in order to have better understanding of available challenges and solutions
to clarify the future direction. For this purpose, we present a proper framework of opinion
mining accompanying with its steps and levels and then we completely monitor, classify,
summarize and compare proposed techniques for aspect extraction, opinion classification,
summary production and evaluation, based on the major validated scientific works. In order
to have a better comparison, we also propose some factors in each category, which help to
have a better understanding of advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
Keywords Opinion mining · Sentiment analysis · Machine learning · Classification ·
Lexicon
1 Introduction
Due to the increasing development of web technology, different evaluation areas are growing
in this field. The original web had the static pages and the users didn’t allow manipulating
B Mohammad Karim Sohrab
i
Amir_sohraby@aut.ac.ir
Fatemeh Hemmatian
Fatemehammatian@gmail.com
1 Department of Computer Engineering, Semnan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Semnan, Iran
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http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8066-0356
1496 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
its contents. Nevertheless, with the advent of new programming technologies, the possibility
of interactions and getting feedback on the web pages grew increasingly. The major part of
these interactions includes the users’ comments, which lead to feedback for the owners of
the web pages to benefit from the users’ ideas to improve the future performances and causes
the products and services adapt with their target group in an appropriate manner. However,
manual analysis of such opinions, especially in the social networks with a lot of audienc
e
through the world, is very difficult, time consuming and in some cases impossible.
To overcome these limitations, the opinion mining has been introduced as an effective
way to discover the knowledge through the expressed comments, especially in the context
of the web. Opinion mining or sentiment analysis extracts the users’ opinions, sentiments
and demands from the subjective texts in a specific domain and distinguishes their polarity.
The exponential and progressive increase of internet usage and the exchange of the public
thoughts are the main motivations of researches in opinion mining and sentiment analysis.
Since several data processing approaches (Sohrabi and Azgomi 2017a, b; Sohrabi and Gho
ds
2015), supervised and unsupervisedmachine learning techniques (Sohrabi andAkbari 2016),
data mining and knowledge discovery methods, including association rule mining (Sohrabi
and Marzooni 2016), frequent itemset mining (Sohrabi and Barforoush 2012, 2013; Sohrabi
and Ghods 2014; Sohrabi 2018), and sequential pattern mining (Sohrabi and Ghods 2016;
Sohrabi and Roshani 2017), with various applications (Arab and Sohrabi 2017; Sohrabi and
Tajik 2017; Sohrabi and Karimi 2018), and web mining approaches (Zhang et al. 2004;
Sisodia and Verma 2012), including web structure mining (WSM) (Velásquez 2013), web
usage mining (WUM) (Yin and Guo 2013), and web content mining (WCN) (Mele 2013),
have been represented in the literature, there are different choices to select techniques and
provide methods for opinion mining and sentiment analysis.
The research about the opinion mining began from the early 2000, but the phrase “opinion
mining” was firstly used in Dave et al. (2003) (Liu 2012). In the past 15years, various
researches have been conducted to examine and analyze the opinions within news, articles,
and product and service reviews (Subrahmanian and Reforgiato 2008). Nowadays, most
people benefit from the opinions of different people by a simple search on the Internet
when buying a commodity or selecting a service. According to the study conducted in Li
and Liu (2014), 81% of the Internet users have searched related comments before buying
a commodity at least once. The search rates in related comments before using restaurants,
hotels and a variety of other services have been reported from 73 to 87%. It should be
noted that these online investigations had a significant impact on the customer’s decisions.
People’s sentimental ideas and theories can be extracted from different web resources, such
as blogs (Alfaro et al. 2016; Bilal et al. 2016), review sites (Chinsha and Joseph 2015;
Molina-González et al. 2014; Jeyapriya and Selvi 2015), and recently micro-blogs (Balahur
and Perea-Ortega 2015; Feng et al. 2015; Pandarachalil et al. 2015; Da Silva et al. 2016;
Saif et al. 2016; Wu et al. 2016; Ma et al. 2017; Li et al. 2017; Keshavarz and Abadeh 2017;
Huang et al. 2017). Micro-blogs, such as Twitter, have become very popular among users
and provides the possibility of sending tweets up to a specified limited number of characters
(Liu 2015).
Opinion mining, can take place in three levels of the document (Sharma et al. 2014;
Moraes et al. 2013; Tang et al. 2015; Sun et al. 2015; Xia et al. 2016), sentence (Marcheggiani
et al. 2014; Yang and Cardie 2014) and aspect (Chinsha and Joseph 2015; Marrese-Taylor
et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2017b). Also all techniques which used to sentiment analysis can be
categorized into threemain classes as: machine learning techniques (Pang et al. 2002;Moraes
et al. 2013; Saleh et al. 2011; Habernal et al. 2015; Riaz et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2017a),
lexicon-based approaches (Kanayama and Nasukawa 2006; Dang et al. 2010; Pandarachalil
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A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1497
Data Mining
Web Mining
Web Structure
Mining
Web Usage
Mining
Web Content Mining
Opinion Mining
Fig. 1 The position of opinion mining
et al. 2015; Saif et al. 2016; Taboada et al. 2011; Turney 2002; Molina-González et al. 2015;
Qiu et al. 2011; Liao et al. 2016; Bravo-Marquez et al. 2016; Muhammad et al. 2016; Khan
et al. 2017) and hybrid methods (Balahur et al. 2012; Abdul-Mageed et al. 2014; Keshavarz
and Abadeh 2017). The machine learning-based opinion mining techniques which have the
benefit of using well-known machine learning algorithms, can be divided into three groups:
supervised (Jeyapriya and Selvi 2015; Habernal et al. 2015; Severyn et al. 2016; Anjaria and
Guddeti 2014), semi-supervised (Hajmohammadi et al. 2015; Hong et al. 2014; Gao et al.
2014; Carter and Inkpen 2015; Lu 2015) and unsupervised (Li and Liu 2014; Claypo and
Jaiyen 2015; De andKopparapu 2013) methods. Lexicon-basedmethod relies on a dictionary
of sentiments and has been highly regarded in the recent studies which can be divided into
the dictionary-based method (Chinsha and Joseph 2015; Pandarachalil et al. 2015; Saif et al.
2016; Sharma et al. 2014) and corpus-based method (Turney 2002; Molina-González et al.
2015; Keshtkar and Inkpen 2013; Vulić et al. 2015). There are also very few works that
are used both corpus-based and dictionary-based methods to improve the results (Taboada
et al. 2011). Some literature reviews and books on opinion mining and sentiment analysis
techniques and methods have also been represented before, which have investigated the
problem from different points of views (Bouadjenek et al. 2016; Liu 2015).
The rest of paper is organized as follows: The clear explanation of the problem, process,
tasks and applications of opinion mining has been represented in Sect. 2. Section 3 defines
the levels of opinion mining. Section 4 focuses on extraction of aspects. The classification
and comparison of sentiments analysis techniques are presented in Sect. 5. The evaluation
criteria in the opinion mining are discussed in Sect. 6, the future direction of opinion mining
are represented in Sect. 7, and finally Sect. 8 concludes the review.
2 Opinion mining: process, tasks, and applications
Opinion mining can be considered as a new subfield of natural language processing (Daud
et al. 2017), information retrieval (Scholer et al. 2016), and text mining (Singh and Gupta
2017). Figure 1 represents the position of opinion mining. Opinion mining is actually consid-
ered as a subset of the web content mining process in the web mining research area. Since the
web content mining focuses on the contents of the web and texts have formed large volume
of web content, text mining techniques are widely used in this area. The most important
challenge of using text mining in web content is their unstructured or semi-structured nature
that requires the natural language processing techniques to deal with. Web mining itself is
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1498 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
also considered a subset of the data mining research area. Here, the use of data mining is to
discover the knowledge from massive data sources of the web.
2.1 Opinion mining definitions
The main goal of opinion mining is to automate extraction of sentiments expressed by users
from unstructured texts. Twomajor definitions of opinionmining can be seen in the literature.
The first definition is proposed in Saleh et al. (2011), as “The automatic processing of docu-
ments to detect opinion expressed therein, as a unitary body of research”. The second major
definition says: “Opinion mining is extracting people’s opinion from the web. It analyzes
people’s opinions, appraisals, attitudes, and emotions toward organizations, entities, person,
issues, actions, topic and their attribute” (Jeyapriya and Selvi 2015; Liu 2012; Liu and Zhang
2012).
Opinion mining contains several tasks with different names which all of them are covered
by it (Liu 2012):
• Sentiment Analysis The purpose of sentiment analysis is the sentiment recognition and
public opinion examination that is considered as a research area in the field of textmining.
• Opinion extractionThe process of extraction of users’ opinions from theweb documents
is called opinion extraction. The main purpose of opinion extraction is to find out the
users’ ways of thinking.
• Sentiment mining Sentiment mining has two main goals: first, it determines whether
the given text contains objective or subjective sentences. A sentence is called objective
(or factual), when it contains the factual information about the product. The subjective
sentences represent the individual emotions about the desired product. In the opinion
mining we consider the subjective sentences. Second, it extracts opinions and classifies
them into three categories of positive, negative and neutral (Farra et al. 2010).
• Subjection analysis Subjection analysis provides the possibility to identify, classify, and
collect subjective sentences.
• Affect or emotion analysis Many of the words at the text are emotionally positive or
negative. Affect analysis specifies the aspects that are expressing emotions in the text
using the natural language processing techniques (Grefenstette et al. 2004).
• Review mining Review mining is a sub-topic of text sentiment analysis and its main
purpose is to extract aspects from the authors’ sentiments and is to produce a summary of
the sentiments. More researches in the review mining have been focused on the product
reviews (Zhuang et al. 2006).
2.2 Opinion mining procedure
The main objective of the opinion mining is to discover all sentiments exist in the documents
(Saleh et al. 2011); in fact, it determines the speaker’s or writer’s attitude about the different
aspects of a problem. We have modeled the opinion mining process in Fig. 2, in which, each
part has some obligations which are as follows:
1. Data collection Having a comprehensive and reliable dataset is the first step to perform
opinion mining process. The necessary information could be collected from various web
resources, such as weblogs, micro blogs (such as Twitter1), social networks (such as
1 https://www.twitter.com/.
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A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1499
Aspects
Opinion active
words or phrases
Data CollectionDatasets Opinion
Identification
Aspect
Extraction
Opinion
Classification
Positive
Negative
Production
SummaryEvaluation
Fig. 2 Opinion mining process
Facebook2) and review websites (such as Amazon,3 Yelp,4 and Tripadvisor5). Using
tools that are developed for extracting data through web, and using various techniques
such as web scraping (Pandarachalil et al. 2015), can be useful to collect appropriate
data. Some datasets are provided in English which can be used as references (Pang et al.
2002; Pang and Lee 2004; Blitzer et al. 2007). Researchers can apply their methods
on these datasets for their simplicity. The first dataset6 prepared by Pang et al. (2002
)
includes 1000 positive movie reviews and 1000 negative movie reviews. This dataset
is the most important and the oldest dataset in this area. The second dataset7 prepared
by Pang and Lee (2004), which includes 1250 positive reviews, 1250 negative reviews,
and 1250 neutral reviews. The Third one is Blitzer (Blitzer et al. 2007),8 which includes
1000 positivemovie review and 1000 negativemovie reviews. Table 1 shows the obtained
accuracies of different researches on the benchmark datasets.
2. Opinion identification All the comments should be separated and identified from the
presented texts in this phase.Then the extracted comments should beprocessed to separate
the inappropriate and fake ones.What wemean by opinions is all the phrases representing
the individual emotions about the products, services or any other desired category.
3. Aspect extraction In this phase, all the existing aspects are identified and extracted
according to the procedures. Selecting the potential aspects could be very effective in
improving the classification.
4. Opinion classification After opinion identification and aspect extraction which can be
considered as the preprocessing phase, in this step the opinions are classified using
different techniques which this paper summarizes, classifies and compares them.
5. Production summary Based on the results of the previous steps, in the production
summary level, a summary of the opinion results is produced which can be in different
forms such as text, charts etc.
6. Evaluation the performance of opinion classification can be evaluated using four eval-
uation parameters, namely accuracy, precision, recall and f-score.
2 https://www.facebook.com/.
3 http://www.amazon.com/.
4 http://www.yelp.com/.
5 http://www.tripadvisor.com/.
6 http://www.cs.cornell.edu/people/pabo/movie-review-data/.
7 http://www.cs.cornell.edu/people/pabo/movie-review-data/ (review corpus version 2.0).
8 http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~mdredze/datasets/sentiment/.
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https://www.facebook.com/
http://www.amazon.com/
http://www.yelp.com/
http://www.tripadvisor.com/
http://www.cs.cornell.edu/people/pabo/movie-review-data/
http://www.cs.cornell.edu/people/pabo/movie-review-data/
http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~mdredze/datasets/sentiment/
1500 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Table 1 Obtained accuracies on the benchmark datasets
Datasets Papers Accuracy (%)
Pang et al. (2002) Chen et al. (2011) 64
Li and Liu (2012) 77
Pang and Lee (2004) Penalver-Martinez et al. (2014) 89.6
Fernández-Gavilanes et al. (2016) 69.95
Fersini et al. (2016) 81.7
Saleh et al. (2011) 85.35
Boiy and Moens (2009) 87.40
Blitzer et al. (2007) Xia et al. (2016) 80
Xia et al. (2011) 85.58
Poria et al. (2014) 87
2.3 Opinion mining applications
Sentiment analysis tries to describe and assess the expressed sentiments about the issues
of interest to web users which have been mentioned in textual messages. These issues can
include a range of brands or goods up to the broader favorite topics such as social, political,
economic and cultural affairs.We note to the several major applications of the opinionmining
in this section.
2.3.1 Opinion mining in the commercial product areas
The usage of opinion mining in the area of commercial products (Chen et al. 2014; Marrese-
Taylor et al. 2014; Jeyapriya and Selvi 2015; Li et al. 2012; Luo et al. 2015) is important
from three viewpoints:
1. The individual customers’ point of view: when someone wants to buy a product, having
a summary of the others’ opinions can be more useful than studying the massive amounts
of others’ comments about this product. Moreover, the customer will be able to compare
the products easily by having a summary of the opinions.
2. The business organizations and producers’ point of view: this issue is important for
the organizations to improve their products. This information is used not only for the
product marketing and evaluation but also for product design and development. The
manufacturing companies can even increase, decrease or change the products based on
customer’s opinions.
3. The advertising companies’ point of view: the opinions are important for advertising
companies because they can obtain ideas of the market demand. The public perspective
of the people and type of products that they are interested in can be found among the
items that extracted by opinion mining.
The important achievements of opinion mining in the commercial products are as follows
(Tang et al. 2009):
• Products comparison Online sellers want their customers to comment about the pur-
chased products. Due to the increasing use of the onlinemarketing and suchweb services,
these sentiments are growing. These sentiments are useful both for product manufactur-
ers and consumers because they can have a better decision making by comparing the
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A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1501
sentiments and ideas of others on this product. More researches have been carried out in
this area, which have focused on the issue of automatic classification of the products in
two categories of recommended and non-recommended.
• Sentiments summarization When the number of sentiments increase, its recognition
is difficult either for producers or consumers. With the sentiments summarization, cus-
tomers find out easier the sentiments of other customers about the product and also
manufacturers realize easier to the customers’ sentiments about the products as well.
• Exploring the reason of opinion The reason of the user to give an opinion can also be
extracted in the opinionmining process. It is extremely important to determine the reason
why consumers like or dislike the product.
2.3.2 Opinion mining in the politics area
Along with the comments on the sale and purchase of goods, with the widespread and
comprehensive use of the Internet services by people, users can also comment on various
political, social, religious, and cultural issues. Collecting and analyzing these comments helps
greatly to politicians, managers of social issues or religious and cultural activists to take
appropriate decisions for improving the social life of the community. One of the significant
applications among these areas is in the political elections that individuals can benefit from
the sentiments of others to make decision in their voting. Analyzing opinions existed in social
networks related to election is addressed in (Tsakalidis et al. 2015; Unankard et al. 2014;
Kagan et al. 2015; Mohammad et al. 2015; Archambault et al. 2013).
2.3.3 Opinion mining in the stock market and stock forecast
Achieving sustained and long-term economic growth requires optimal allocation of resources
at the national economy level and this is not easily possible without the help of appropriate
information and knowledge. Investing in supplied stocks in the stock exchange is one of
the profitable options in the capital market which plays an important role in the individuals’
better decision making and having its own particular audience which predicting the stock.
Among the studies representing the application of the opinion mining in the stock market it
can be pointed out to (Bollen et al. 2011; Nofer and Hinz 2015; Bing et al. 2014; Fortuny
et al. 2014) that the opinions have been used to predict the stock market. For example, Daily
comments of Twitter have been analyzed using OpinionFinder and GPOMS as two important
moods tracking tools by Bollen et al. (2011) and showed the correlation to daily changes in
Dow Jones Industrial Average closing values.
3 Levels of opinion mining
As shown in Fig. 3, opinion mining is possible on four different levels, namely document
level, sentence level, aspect level, and concept level.
Document level (Moraes et al. 2013) of opinion mining is the most abstract level of
sentiment analysis and so is not appropriate for precise evaluations. The result of this level of
analysis is usually general information about the documents polarity which cannot be very
accurate. Sentence level opinion mining (Marcheggiani et al. 2014) is a fine-grain analysis
that could be more accurate. Since the polarity of the sentences of an opinion does not imply
the same polarity for the whole of opinion necessarily, aspect level of opinion mining (Xia
et al. 2015) have been considered by researchers as the third level of opinion mining and
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1502 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Opinion Mining Levels
Sentence LevelDocument Level Concept LevelAspect Level
Fig. 3 Different levels of opinion mining
sentiment analysis. Concept level opinion mining is the forth level of sentiment analysis
which focuses on the semantic analysis of the text and analyzes the concepts which do not
explicitly express any emotion (Poria et al. 2014). Several recent surveys and reviews on
sentiment analysis consider these levels of opinion mining from this point of view (Medhat
et al. 2014; Ravi and Ravi 2015; Balazs and Velasquez 2016; Yan et al. 2017; Sun et al. 2017;
Lo et al. 2017).
3.1 Document level
The sentiment analysis may be used in the document level. In this level of the opinion
mining, sentiments are ultimately summarized on the whole of the document as positive or
negative (Pang et al. 2002). The purpose of categorizing comments at the document level is
the automatic classification of information based on a single topic, which is expressed as a
positive or negative sentiment (Moraes et al. 2013). Since this level of opinion mining does
not enter into details and the review process takes place in an abstract and general view, the
mining process can be done much faster. In early works, most of the researches conducted
at the document level and focused on datasets such as the news and the products review.
By increase in the popularity of the social networks, different types of datasets were created
which made increasing the studies of this level (Habernal et al. 2015; Gupta et al. 2015).
Since the entire document is considered as a single entity in document level opinion mining,
this level of opinion mining is not suitable for precise evaluation and comparison. Most of
the techniques carrying out in the opinion classification at this level are based on supervised
learning methods (Liu and Zhang 2012).
3.2 Sentence level
Since, document level sentiment analysis is too coarse, researchers investigated approaches
to focus on the sentence (Wilson et al. 2005; Marcheggiani et al. 2014; Yang and Cardie
2014; Appel et al. 2016). The goal of this level of opinion mining is to classify opinions in
each sentence. Sentiments analysis on the sentence level constitutes of two following steps
(Liu and Zhang 2012):
• Firstly it is determined that the sentence is subjective or objective.
• Secondly the polarity (positive or negative) of sentence is determined.
In the classification of comments at the sentence level, since the documents are broken into
several sentences, they provide more accurate information on the polarity of the views and
naturally entail more challenges than the level of the document.
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3.3 Aspect level
Although the classification of text sentiments on the document and sentence level is helpful
in many cases but it does not provide all the necessary details. For example, being positive
of the sentiments on a document in relation to a particular entity, does not imply that the
author’s opinion is positive about all the aspects of an entity. Similarly, negative sentiments
do not represent the author negative opinion about all the aspects of an entity (Liu and
Zhang 2012). The classification on the document level (Moraes et al. 2013) and sentence
level (Marcheggiani et al. 2014) does not provide these kinds of information and we need to
perform opinion mining in aspect level (Xia et al. 2015) to achieve these details. When the
considered comment does not include a single entity or aspect, this level of opinion mining
is the appropriate option, which is an important advantage of this level of classification and
distinguishes it from the two previous levels. Aspect level opinion mining actually considers
the given opinion itself instead of looking to the language structures (document, sentence or
phrase) (Liu 2012). The objective of this level is to identify and extract the aspects from the
sentiments text and then specify their polarity. This level of sentiments analysis can produce
a summary of the sentiments about different aspects of the desired entity. It can be seen that
this level of opinion mining provides a more accurate result (Chinsha and Joseph 2015).
3.4 Concept level
Cambria (2013) introduced the concept level opinion mining as a deep understanding of the
natural language texts by the machine, in which, the opinion methods should go beyond the
surface level analysis. Cambria et al. (2013) has also presented the concept level of opinion
mining as a newavenue in the sentiment analysis. The analysis of emotions at the concept level
is based on the inference of conceptual information about emotion and sentiment associated
with natural language. Conceptual approaches focus on the semantic analysis of the text
and analyze the concepts which do not explicitly express any emotion (Poria et al. 2014).
An enhanced version of SenteicNet have been proposed in Poria et al. (2013), which assign
emotion labels to carry out concept level opinion mining. Poria et al. (2014) have proposed a
new approach to improve the accuracy of polarity detection. An analysis of comments at the
conceptual level has been introduced that integrates linguistic, common-sense computing, and
machine learning techniques. Their results indicate that the proposed method has a desirable
accuracy and better than common statistical methods. A concept level sentiment dictionary
has been built in Tsai et al. (2013) based on common-sense knowledge using a two phase
method which integrates iterative regression and random walk with in-link normalization. A
concept level sentiment analysis system has been presented in Mudinas et al. (2012), which
combined lexicon-based and learning based approaches for concept mining from opinions.
EventSensor system is represented in Shah et al. (2016) to extract concept tags from visual
contents and textual meta data in concept-level sentiment analysis.
4 Aspect extraction
One of the main important steps in sentiments classification is aspect extraction (Rana and
Cheah 2016). In this section we categorize current techniques for aspect extraction and
selection.As itmentioned, aspect level classificationhas better performance and aprerequisite
for using it is obtaining aspects. Most researches in the field of aspect extraction have been
focused on the online reviews (Hu and Liu 2004; Li et al. 2015; Lv et al. 2017). In general,
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1504 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Aspect Extraction Techniques
Based on exploiting opinion
and aspect relations
Based on nouns and the
frequent noun phrases
Based on topic
modeling
Based on the supervised
learning techniques
Fig. 4 Classification of aspect extraction techniques
as is shown in Fig. 4, the related techniques can be placed in four categories (Liu 2012):
Extraction based on the frequent noun phrases and nouns (Jeyapriya and Selvi 2015; Hu and
Liu 2004; Li et al. 2015), Extraction based on exploiting opinion and aspect relations (Qiu
et al. 2011; Wu et al. 2009), Extraction based on the supervised learning (Jin et al. 2009;
Yu et al. 2011), Extraction based on topic modeling (Vulić et al. 2015; Mukherjee and Liu
2012).
4.1 Extraction based on frequency of noun phrases and nouns
This method is known as a simple and effective approach. Generally, when people express
their comments about various aspects of a product, they basically use similarwords frequently
to express their sentiments (Liu 2012). In this method, the nouns and noun phrases are
determined by a POS tagger and the names that have been frequently repeated are selected
as aspect. POS tags indicate the role of the words in a sentence (Wang et al. 2015a). A list of
POS tags has been collected in Table 2 which shows all the POS tags based on (Liu 2012).
Li et al. (2015) suggested a method for improving feature extraction performance by
online reviews. Their method which is based on frequent noun and noun phrase is consisted
of three important components: frequent based mining and pruning, order based filtering,
and similarity based filtering. Their experimental results show that proposed method could
be generalized over various domains with different-sized data. Jeyapriya and Selvi (201
5)
suggested a feature extraction system in product review. They extracted nouns and noun
phrase from each review sentence and used minimum support threshold to find frequent
features in review sentences. Their accuracy was about 80.32
4.2 Extraction based on relation exploitation between opinion words and aspects
This method uses the existing relationship between the aspects and opinion words in the
expressed opinions. Some of the infrequent aspects can be identified with the help of this
method. The main idea is that the opinion words can be used to describe the different
aspects (Liu and Zhang 2012). Qiu et al. (2011) focused on two fundamental and important
issues, opinion lexicon expansion and target extraction, and suggested the double propagation
approach. They performed extraction based on syntactic relations that cause link between
review words and targets. Relations could be detected according to a dependency parser and
then could be used for opinion lexicon expansion and extraction. Results show that their
approach is significantly better than existing methods.
4.3 Extraction based on the supervised learning
Supervised learning approaches are promising techniques for aspect extraction which gen-
erates a model of aspects by using labeled data. Support vector machine (SVM) (Cortes and
Vapnik 1995; Manek et al. 2017), conditional random fields (CRF) (Lafferty et al. 2001), and
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A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1505
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123
1506 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
hidden Markov model (HMM) (Rabiner 1989) are some of the supervised learning methods
that can be used to extract the aspects (Liu 2012). In Kobayashi et al. (2007), aspects was
extracted from a collection of blog posts using machine learning methods and the results was
used as statistical patterns for aspect extraction.
4.3.1 Extraction based on topic modeling
In recent years the statistical topic models are considered as a systematic approach to detect
the topics from the text document collections (Vulić et al. 2015;Mukherjee and Liu 2012; Liu
2012). Topic modeling is an unsupervised method for aspect extraction in which it assumes
that any document contains k hidden topics. For example in hotel investigation, some standard
features such as location, cleanliness and so on are discussed. Now it is possible that there are
comments about the quality of internet connection, so we are facing with a hidden topic. In
these situations, there is a need for a model to automatically extract relevant aspects without
human supervision (Titov andMcDonald 2008). Since this approach, uses statistical methods
like latent semantic analysis (LSA) (Hofmann 1999) and latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA)
(Blei et al. 2003), it is called statistical models too. Also LDA and LSA use the bag of words
represented in documents, so they can be used only in document level opinion mining. Ma
et al. (2015) proposed an approach of probabilistic topic model based on LDA in order to
semantic search over citizens opinions about city issues on online platforms. Their results
show that systems based on LDA provide useful information about their staff members. Luo
et al. (2015) worked on detection and rating feature in product review which is as important
task of opinion mining in aspect level. They presented Quad-tuple PLSA for solving this
problem because entity and rating rarely considered in previous researches hence had great
performance.
5 Opinion classification techniques
Most important and critical step of opinion mining is selecting an appropriate technique to
classify the sentiments. In this section we explain, categorize, summarize and compare pro-
posed techniques in this area. The classification methods which are proposed in the literature
can be fall into two groups: machine learning and lexicon-based approaches. This type of
categorization can be seen in some works (Wang et al. 2015a; Petz et al. 2015), but in this
paper we address the issue muchmore comprehensive in more details with better comparison
factors and discussions based on the major validated scientific works.
5.1 Machine learning method
According to Fig. 5 three techniques of the machine learning methods are used to classify
the sentiments: supervised, semi-supervised, and unsupervised learning methods.
5.1.1 Supervised learning method
In the supervised learning is, the process of learning is carried out using the data of a training
set in which, the output value is specified for any input and the system tries to learn a function,
by mapping the input to the output, i.e., to guess the relationship between input and output. In
this method, the categories are initially specified and any of the training data is assigned to a
specific category. In fact in the supervised approach, the classifier categorizes the sentiments
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1507
Machine Learning Methods
Unsupervised
Learning
Semi-supervised
Learning
Supervised
Learning
Fig. 5 Machine learning based opinion classification techniques
Supervised Learning
Probabilistic
Classification
Non-probabilistic
Classification
Naïve
Bayes
Bayesian
Network
Maximum
Entropy
Support Vector
Machine
Neural
Network
K-Nearest
Neighbour
Decision
Tree
Rule-
based
Fig. 6 Supervised learning-based opinion classification methods
using labeled text samples.As shown in Fig. 6, supervised sentiment classification approaches
can be divided into two main categories: Probabilistic Classification and Non-probabilistic
Classification.
5.1.1.1. Probabilistic classification Probabilistic classification is one of the popular classi-
fications approaches in the field of the machine learning. These methods are derived from
probabilistic models which provide a systematic way for statistical classification in complex
domains such as the natural language. Hence, it has an effective application in the opinion
mining. Naive Bayes, Bayesian network and maximum entropy are some of the well-known
methods in the field of opinion mining which belong to this kind of classification.
Naive Bayes (NB)
This method is a simple and popular approach in the area of text classification. It is assumed
that the existing sentenceswithin the document are subjectivewhich the existence of semantic
orientation of words is definitely a final verdict on the subjectivity of the sentences. The
features are also selected from a set of words within the documents. It is an approach to
text classification that assigns the class c∗ = Arg maxc P (c|d) , to a given document d. The
relation 1 is expressed based on the Bayesian theory (Pang et al. 2002).
P(c|d) = p(c)p(d|c)
p(d)
(1)
where p(d) plays no role in selecting c∗. To estimate the term p(d|c), Naïve Bayes decom-
poses it by assuming the fi’s are conditionally independent given d’s class as in relation 2
(Pang et al. 2002).
PNB(c|d) = P(C)
(
πm
i=1P ( fi |c)ni (d)
)
p(d)
(
2)
where m is the number of features and f is the feature vector.
123
1508 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Bilal et al. (2016) compared efficiencies of three techniques, namelyNaive-Bayes, decision
tree, and nearest neighbor for classifying Urdu and English opinions in a blog. Their results
show that Naïve-Bayes has better performance than two other techniques. Various opinion
mining methods have been used naïve Bayes as a probabilistic classifier (Hasan et al. 2015;
Parveen and Pandey 2016; Goel et al. 2016; Ramadhani et al. 2016)
Bayesian networks (BN)
The Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical model representing the relationship
between random variables. This model consists of a directed acyclic graph and a set of
conditional probability distributions for each of the network variables (Sierra et al. 2009).
The network has an extended structure and it is easy to add new variables. In fact, it is a
method to describe the joint probability distribution of a set of variables that has described
the conditional independence of a set of variables and provides the possibility for combining
the prior knowledge with training data about the dependence of variables. In this model
the relation 3 (Sierra et al. 2009) is used to calculate the probability distribution of a set of
variables. According to this relation variable x is independent from other variables if it has
parents:
P (x1, x2, . . . , xn) =
n∏
i=1
p(xi |parents(xi )) (
3)
A hierarchical Bayesian network has been used by authors in Ren and Kang (2013) to
build a model for the analysis of the human beings emotions. It finds complex emotions in
the document by establishing a relationship between the topic modeling and analyzing the
emotions. The results indicate that this method is able to operate in complex domains. In
Kisioglu and Topcu (2011), a research has also been carried out to find out the most important
factors affecting the customers of telecommunications industry considering the benefits of
Bayesian network. In this study, 2000 customers’ data from Turkish Telecommunication
Company has been used as the dataset.
Maximum entropy (ME)
Another probabilistic based approach that is used to sentiment classification is maximum
entropy (Pang et al. 2002; Habernal et al. 2015). This method has had an enormous impact in
the natural language processing applications (Berger et al. 1996). Since unlike Naïve Bayes,
maximum entropy makes no assumptions about the relationships between features, it might
potentially perform better when condition independence assumptions are not met (Pang et al.
2002). Thismethod is also known as the exponential classifiers because of having exponential
formula shown in relation 4.
PME (c|d) = 1
z(d)
exp
(
∑
i
λi,c fi,c(d, c)
)
(4)
In relation 4, z(d) is the normalization function, fi,c is a function for the feature fi and the
category c, and λi,c is a parameter for the feature weight which has been defined as relation 5
(Pang et al. 2002).
fi,c(d, ć) =
{
1, ni (d) > 0 and ć = c
0, other
(5)
The model with maximum entropy is the one in the parametric family P(c|d) maximizing
the likelihood (Xia et al. 2011). Numerical methods such as, iterative scaling algorithm and
Gaussian prior (Pang et al. 2002) optimization are usually employed to solve the optimization
problem. Habernal et al. (2015) performed a deep research on machine learning methods in
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A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1509
order to sentiment analysis on social media in Czech. They used two classifiers, maximum
entropy and support vector machine, for Facebook dataset; furthermore, for other datasets,
maximum entropy is used due to computational possibility for classifying opinions into
positive, negative and neutral classes. The research’s results show that maximum entropy
had better performance rather than support vector machine in most of cases. There are also
some other recent researches which is used the maximum entropy foe sentiment analysis
(Yan and Huang 2015; Ficamos et al. 2017).
5.1.1.2. Non-probabilistic Classification In some situations, according to the terms of the
problem, the probabilistic classifiers cannot be effective. In this case, the other option for
doing the classification is using non-probabilistic classifiers. Among all non-probabilistic
classifiers, neural network, support vector machine (SVM), nearest neighbor, decision tree
and rule-based methods are widely used in sentiment analysis.
Support vector machines (SVM)
SVM (Cortes and Vapnik 1995) is one of the most popular supervised classification methods
whichhas a robust theoretical base and according to the research report (Liu 2007), is likely the
most precisemethod in text classification, whichmakes it common in sentiment classification
(Mullen and Collier 2004; Saleh et al. 2011; Kranjc et al. 2015). Also it shows to be highly
effective at traditional text categorization, generally out performing Naïve Bayes (Joachims
1998). SVM finds optimal hyper plane to divide classes (Moraes et al. 2013). The most
widely known research to apply the classification on document-level sentiment analysis was
conducted by Pang et al. (2002). It used 700 positive and 700 negative labeled documents as
training data to build a model with naïve Bayes, maximum entropy and SVM which the best
empirical results is obtained by using SVM. Tripathy et al. (2016) used four differentmachine
learning algorithms including stochastic gradient descent, support vector machine, naïve-
Bayes and maximum entropy by applying n-gram approach. They reached an acceptable
accuracy in their research. Severyn et al. (2016) used SVM for opinion mining on YouTube.
Their aim was detecting type and polarity of opinions. Saleh et al. (2011) conducted an
experiment on SVM method to classify opinions in various domains by applying some
weighting procedure. Their results show that SVM method is a promising and desirable
method which can overcome opinion classification.
Artificial neural network (ANN)
Among different machine learning algorithm, ANN has absorbed less attention in this area
but recently has attracted more attention and popularity (Tang et al. 2015; Vinodhini and
Chandrasekaran 2016). The key idea of ANN is to extract features from linear combination
of the input data, and then models output as a nonlinear function of these features. Neural
networks are usually displayed as a network diagram which involves nodes connected by
links. Nodes are arranged in a layer and the architecture of common neural networks includes
three layers: input layer, output layer and a hidden layer. There are two types of neural
networks, feed forward and back forward (Moraes et al. 2013). Since in forward network the
nodes are only connected in one direction, it is suitable for sentiment classification (Chen et al.
2011). Each connection has a correspondingweight valuewhich is estimated byminimizing a
global error function in a gradient descent training process. A neuron is a simplemathematical
model which outputs a value in two steps. In first step, the neuron calculates a weighted sum
of its input and then obtains its output by applying an activation function to this sum. The
activation function is typically a nonlinear function and it ensures that the whole network
can estimate a nonlinear function which is previously learned from the input data (Moraes
et al. 2013).
123
1510 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
In Tang et al. (2015), authors proposed a novel neural network method to investigate
review rating prediction regarding user information. This method involves two composition
methods: User-Word Composition Vector Model (UWCVM), and Document Composition
Vector Model (DCVM). UWCVM modifies the original word vector by user information.
Modifiedword vectors are then entered in DCVM to produce the review representationwhich
is regarded as feature to predict review rating. In order to examine prediction rate, UMCVM
is integrated into a feed-forward neural network. The results of DCVM are used as features
to make rating predictor without any feature engineering. The neural network parameters are
trained in an end-to-end fashion with back propagation. In the area of sentiments analysis,
the main deficiency of neural network is that the training time is high.
In Chen et al. (2011), it is suggested to combine the features for building a model based on
neural network with a few number of input neuron. In this paper, a neural network approach
has been suggested for sentiment classification in the blog sphere. Thus, SO-A, SO-PMI
(AND), SO-PMI (Near), and SO-LSI are used as the input neurons of back propagation
network. The suggested approach is not only shows higher accuracy in classification, but
also is better in training time. Jian et al. (2010) has adopted an ANN-based individual model
for simulating the human’s judgment on sentiment polarity. Practical results indicate that
precision of individual model is higher than support vector machine and hidden Markov
model classifiers on movie review corpus. Moraes et al. (2013) has compared two methods
of support vector machine and neural network for sentiments analysis on the document level.
Their testing results indicate that the neural network has superiority or at least comparable
resultswith SVM. InDuncan andZhang (2015), authors have examined a feed-forward neural
network for sentiment analysis of tweets. Twitter API has been used to collect the training
set of tweets with positive and negative keywords. Using the same keywords, testing set of
tweets has been collected too. The experimental results show that memory is an important
issue in the case that feed-forward pattern network will train with very large vocabularies.
Consequently, in this case, there is not enough memory to hold the data structures that are
required for training the feed-forward pattern network once the vocabulary is too large.
The computational cost of the neural network is high for training phase in opinion mining
and its accuracy is highly dependent on the number of training data. Convolutional neural net-
works (CNN) are appropriate alternatives which have high performance in the classification
of emotions. Chen et al. (2016) has considered temporal relation of reviews and have made a
sequential model to improve the performance of the sentiment analysis at the document level.
A one-dimensional convolutional neural network has been proposed in this paper to learn
the distributed representation of each review. A recurrent neural network was also used then
to learn the distributed representation of users and products. Finally, the machine learning
has been used to classify the comments. A dynamic convolutional neural network has been
exploited inKalchbrenner et al. (2014) to encounter input sentences that have variable lengths.
This method does not require the provision of external properties by the parser. A CNN-based
opinion summarization method is proposed Li et al. (2016) to extract a proper set of features
for opinion mining on the Chinese micro-blogging systems. Two levels of convolutional
neural networks have been combined in Gu et al. (2017) to construct a cascade convolutional
neural network (C-CNN). CNNs of the first level do the aspect mapping and the single CNN
of the second level specifies polarity of opinions. Some CNN-based opinion mining methods
have been also proposed for multimedia sentiment analysis (Cai and Xia 2015).
The first deep learning based approach for feature extraction was represented in Poria
et al. (2016). In this paper, a seven-layer architecture deep convolutional neural network has
been proposed to tag each word in the sentence as a feature or a non-feature. A multimodal
sentiment analysis framework for opinion mining from video contents has been proposed in
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A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1511
Poria et al. (2017), in which audio and textual modalities have been combined by multiple
kernel learning using a convolutional neural network. Deep recurrent neural networks (RNN)
have been also used for opinion mining. For example a deep RNN in Irsoy and Cardie
(2014) has been applied on an opinion mining process which is modeled as a token level
sequence labeling task. Some of applications of opinion mining have been also covered by
deep convolutional neural networks. For example, Ebrahimi et al. (2016) proposed a deep
CNN to detect predatory conversations in social media.
K-nearest neighbor (KNN)
KNN is one of the most popular instances of learning-based methods (Tsagkalidou et al.
2011). In this method, K is the number of considered neighbors which is usually odd, and
the distance to these neighbors are determined based on the standard Euclidean intervals
(Duwairi andQarqaz 2014). The underlying assumption in this method is that, all the samples
are real points in n-dimensional space. In general, this algorithm is used for two purposes: to
estimate the distribution density function of training data as well as to classify testing data
based on the training patterns. Suppose c1 . . . cn is a predefined set of categories and any of
these categories also includes their own data. According to relation 6, if we want to assign
a new data such as x using this method to one of the categories, the nearest category should
be selected (Alfaro et al. 2016).
d(x, c j ) = min{d(x, c1), . . . . . . , d(x, cn)} (6)
Three methods of machine learning including naive Bayes, SVM, and nearest neighbor are
used for classification in Duwairi and Qarqaz (2014) to analyze the Arabic sentiments. The
results indicate that SVM has a high precision and the nearest neighbor has a high recall.
Alfaro et al. (2016) compared the performance of SVM and the nearest neighbor algorithm
for text classification and sentiment analysis by using weblog data as dataset. They show that
SVM performs better in two cases: first it does classification with higher precision, second:
it has higher computational speed and needs lower training time.
Decision tree (DT)
The decision tree (Quinlan 1986) is one of the most famous inductive learning algorithms
that its main goal is to approximate the objective functions with discrete values. It is a noise-
resistant method. This tree is known as decision tree because it shows the process of decision
making to determine an input sample category. The decision tree can be a good option for
opinion mining because it has very good performance against the high-volume data. The
decision tree algorithms such as CART, C5.0, C4.0, CHAID, QUEST and also SVM have
been used to classify the sentiments in Bastı et al. (2015). Since C5.0, CARD and SVM
has more accuracy than the others, these three classification algorithms have been used for
the final analysis. The final results indicate that, C5.0 has better accuracy than CHAID and
SVM. The overall accuracy of C5.0 is close to 97%. CART and SVM has been estimated
approximately to 81 and 72% respectively.
Rule-based method
In the rule-based classification approaches, the produced model is a set of rules. Rule is a
knowledge structure which relates known information to other information which is derived
from them. A rule consists of antecedent and its associated consequent that have an “if-
then” relation. The “if” part, includes the conjunction of conditions and the consequent part,
includes the prediction class for target. The target could be a product, film, Business Com-
pany or a politician. The general form of a classification rules can be seen in relation 7 (Xia
et al. 2016).
123
1512 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
{w1∧w2∧. . .∧wn} → {+|−} (7)
Each word in the preceding rule could be a sentiment showing an antecedent like relation 8.
{good} → {+} {ugly} → {−} (8)
To extract rules from a set of training data, algorithms andmethods of generating decision-
tree, sequential covering algorithm (SCA), or detecting dependency rules are usually used.
In Gao et al. (2015), in order to explore the emotions in a Chinese micro-blog, a rule-based
method has been used. According to the proposed method in this study, a rule-based system
underlying the conditions which trigger emotions based on an emotion model and extracts
the corresponding cause components in fine-grained emotion. The emotional lexicon is built
automatically and manually from the corpus while the proportion of cause compounds are
calculated by the influence of a multi-language feature based on Bayesian probability. Their
results show that the precision of this method could reach to 82.5%. Also in Wen and Wan
(2014), emotion classification issue is addressed in micro-blog data sources. The aim of this
study is to classify the text in seven types of emotions including anger, hatred, fear, happiness,
love, sadness and surprise. The suggested approach, for each sentence in a micro-blog text,
firstly obtains two potential emotion labels by using an emotion lexicon and a machine learn-
ing approach using Rule Sequence Class and SVM, and considers each micro-blog text as a
data sequence. Then, class sequential rules aremined from the dataset and finally new features
are obtained from mined rules for emotion classification. Xia et al. (2016) addressed polarity
shift problem in opinion mining at document level. Polarity shift is an important subject and
affects machine learning methods performance for opinion classification. According to this,
they suggested a three-stage model for detecting polarity shifts and eliminations in which
they used rule-based methods and statistical methods in order to detect some polarity shifts,
as well as a new algorithm for eliminating polarity shift in negation. Results show that their
three-stage model was effective in polarity shift detection problem in opinion classification
at document level.
Table 3, summarizes some of the most important recent researches in opinion mining,
which are based on the supervised learning. The comparison is made in terms of method
type, level, applications, datasets and document language.
We also compare the supervised methods in Table 4. It should be noted that, the value of
computation cost and classification error which is from low to high, are qualitative measures
and are obtained by studying various articles. Supervised techniques have very high accuracy
but in contrast, because of their dependency to labeled training samples they have relatively
slow efficiency and high cost. The conducted observations and studies show that the SVM
has much attracted the researchers’ attention due to the numerous advantages in comparison
with other methods, so the use of this method can be seen in the most previous works.
5.1.2 Semi-supervised learning
In this section we focus on semi-supervised sentiment classification (Sindhwani andMelville
2008). Traditional classifiers use only labeled data (feature/label pairs) to train. Labeled
samples however are often difficult, expensive, or time consuming to obtain, as they require
the efforts of experienced human annotators. In addition, in analyzing the comments, labeling
a scenario requires strong domain knowledge. Meanwhile, although unlabeled data may be
abundant and easily available on the web and so relatively easy to collect, but there are few
ways to use them. Semi-supervised learning addresses this problem by using large amount of
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1513
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14
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SV
M
Pr
od
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t,
m
ov
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So
ci
al
m
ed
ia
C
ze
ch
123
1514 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Ta
bl
e
3
co
nt
in
ue
d
R
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15
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)
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(r
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)
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20
16
)
20
15
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M
Pr
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(a
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ip
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,M
ot
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ol
a
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,fi
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50
0,
et
c)
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h
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d
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ia
n
Je
ya
pr
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a
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lv
i(
20
15
)
20
15
Se
nt
en
ce
le
ve
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N
aï
ve
B
ay
es
Pr
od
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ev
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w
A
m
az
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po
in
io
ns
,C
ne
t
E
ng
lis
h
G
ao
et
al
.(
20
15
)
20
15
–
R
ul
e-
ba
se
d
E
xp
lo
re
th
e
em
ot
io
n
ca
us
es
ef
fe
ct
iv
el
y
w
ei
bo
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hi
ne
se
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ri
pa
th
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et
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.(
20
16
)
20
16
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
SV
M
,N
aï
ve
B
ay
es
,
M
ax
im
um
en
tr
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y,
St
oc
ha
st
ic
al
gr
ad
ie
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M
ov
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re
vi
ew
IM
D
B
E
ng
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h
V
ila
re
s
et
al
.(
20
17
)
20
17
Se
nt
en
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le
ve
l
Se
nt
im
en
t
cl
as
si
fie
r
D
if
fe
re
nt
to
pi
cs
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h,
Sp
an
is
h
Ph
am
an
d
L
e
(2
01
7)
20
17
A
sp
ec
tL
ev
el
N
eu
ra
l
ne
tw
or
k
H
ot
el
re
vi
ew
T
ri
pA
dv
is
or
E
ng
lis
h
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1515
Ta
bl
e
4
C
om
pa
ri
ng
su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
m
et
ho
ds
in
op
in
io
n
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
Su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
A
dv
an
ta
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s
D
ra
w
ba
ck
s
A
ss
es
sm
en
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P
ro
ba
bi
li
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ic
cl
as
si
fic
at
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ai
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ay
es
ia
n
V
er
y
us
ef
ul
fo
r
ex
tr
ac
tin
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su
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if
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pl
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is
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sp
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fo
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A
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to
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w
ith
a
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be
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in
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by
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cr
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ab
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so
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of
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di
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ly
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pr
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et
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to
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as
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s
da
ta
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w
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on
-p
ro
ba
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as
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fic
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pp
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to
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ai
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ee
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to
ch
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se
an
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pr
op
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er
ne
lf
un
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n
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er
y
go
o
d
pe
rf
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m
an
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in
th
e
ex
pe
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en
ta
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go
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ne
ra
liz
at
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th
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ec
el
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by
in
cr
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se
in
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m
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av
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m
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fe
at
ur
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sp
ac
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Pr
ob
le
m
of
in
te
rp
re
ta
tio
n
123
1516 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Ta
bl
e
4
co
nt
in
ue
d
Su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
A
dv
an
ta
ge
s
D
ra
w
ba
ck
s
A
ss
es
sm
en
t
N
eu
ra
ln
et
w
or
k
G
oo
d
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
ag
ai
ns
t
no
is
e
in
da
ta
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if
fic
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ti
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pl
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en
ta
tio
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re
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m
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pa
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te
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ni
qu
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ex
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ig
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em
or
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co
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m
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ag
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ar
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se
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ul
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ve
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in
th
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de
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sp
ac
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or
pe
rf
or
m
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ce
ag
ai
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no
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ta
L
im
ite
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fic
ie
nc
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in
te
xt
pr
oc
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si
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se
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en
ce
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ve
l
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as
y
to
un
de
rs
ta
nd
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1517
Semi-supervised Learning
Self-training Co-training Multi-view Leaning Graph-based methods Generative Models
Fig. 7 Classification of semi-supervised learning methods in opinion classification
unlabeled data, together with small amount of labeled data, to build better classifiers. semi-
supervised learning approaches requires less human effort and gives higher accuracy, so are
of great interest in opinion mining area. Semi-supervised learning methods which proposed
in the literature have been categorized in Fig. 7.
5.1.2.1. Self-training This approach is considered as one of the famous and popular methods
among the semi-supervised learningmethods,which has been used abundantly (Zimmermann
et al. 2014; Gao et al. 2014; He and Zhou 2011). In the self-training methods, at first, the
classifier should be trained using a small number of labeled training samples, then the trained
classifier will be used to classify test (unlabeled) samples. The test samples which have
been labeled with the maximum reliability will be added to the set of training samples. The
classifier will be trained with the set of all (including new) training samples again and the
process will be repeated. In other words the classifier uses its prediction for training. Self-
training, generates a model through sentiment labeled data, and uses this model to predict
data without sentiment labels. In the result of prediction, data without sentiment labels with
high confidence of sentiment level are selected and added to data with sentiment labels with
attached sentiment label (Hong et al. 2014). This approach modifies the model, based on its
output; so if the model generates wrong output, the model can be modified wrongly. In the
other words, the wrong results propagated to next generated models. To alleviate the weak
point, Hong et al. (2014) proposed a competitive self-training technique. They create three
models based on the output of the model and choose the best. Finally they could improve the
performance of sentiment analysis model. Da Silva et al. (2016) proposed a semi-supervised
framework to analyze opinions in twitter.Moreover, they used self-trainingmethod for a better
tweet classification. Their experiment results in real dataset show that proposed framework
causes accuracy enhancement in twitter opinion analysis.
5.1.2.2. Co-training Co-training is a semi-supervised learning method, which uses both
labeled and unlabelled data. It is assumed that, each example can be explained by two sets of
different features which have different and complementary information about every sample.
In co-training, two classifiers will be trained separately and the information obtained from
this training is shared between each other. Then any of these two classifiers retrain by using
training samples which has recently been added by the other classifier. In this way a large
set of training data will be formed. This method has been first implemented by Blum et al.
(1998). They have used a small set of labeled data and a large set of unlabeled data for the
repetition operation to build a more complete classification model. Co-training has been used
in a few sentiment analysis tasks. Blum and Mitchell’s algorithm is used in Wan (2011) to
do sentiment classification on reviews, using Chinese data from one view and English data
from another view. Also sentiment classification of tweets which are offered in Liu et al.
(2013a, b) used co-training approach.
5.1.2.3. Multi view learning In this method, the main assumption is that the collection of
hypotheses is compatible together. In this method, the final goal is to produce k models based
123
1518 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
on k views. By utilizing this agreement, a different representation of the problem is used
to improve the overall performance of classification. One of the applications of multi view
learning is in cross-lingual sentiment analysis. Cross-lingual sentiment analysis is considered
critical for classifying the sentiments and it has been widely investigated in recent years
(Hajmohammadi et al. 2014). The objective of cross-lingual study is to use the labeled data
of the source language (mostly English) to compensate the lack of labeled data in the target
language. Multi view learning is a very effective method in such matters because it has
several views. In fact, different views and different source languages can complement each
other to cover the sentimental terms of test data. For example,Mihalcea et al. (2007) generates
subjectivity analysis resources in a new language from English sentiment resources by using
a bilingual dictionary. Hajmohammadi et al. (2014) is one of the research samples proving the
efficiency of the mentioned method in the context of cross-lingual sentiment analysis. In the
above-mentioned research, the semi-supervised multi view learning method has been used
to classify the sentiments by using data collection of book review in 4 different languages.
5.1.2.4. Graph-based methods Graph-based learning has been focused by researchers in
the last decade (Wang et al. 2015b; Lu 2015) and has been confirmed to be effective for
many NLP tasks (Xing et al. 2018). Graph-based models have been used for sentiment
classification (Lu 2015), automatic creating of sentiment lexicons (Hassan and Radev 2010),
cross-lingual sentiment analysis (Hajmohammadi et al. 2015), and social media analysis
(Speriosu et al. 2011). Graph-based learning represents data as a weighted graph in which
vertices represent instances and edges reflect instances similarities. The assumption is that
tightly connected instances are likely belonging to same class. In sentiment classification,
instances are documents. Document similarity is used to show the adjacency of document
sentiments. Three vital questions must be answered when graph-based learning applies to
sentiment classification (Ponomareva 2014):
1. How a sentiment graph is constructed? The answer to this question is a key point for
having successful performance.
2. Another question is raised according to the similarity measure between documents which
state the adjacency of document sentiments rather than content. Sentiment classification
requires a similarity metric that assigns values to a pair of documents on the basis of
their sentiment in a way that documents which have same sentiment, have high level of
similarity and vice versa.
3. What kind of algorithm should we use in this method? Graph Mincut (Blum and Chawla
2001), label propagation (LP) (Khan et al. 2014), spectral graph transducer (Joachims
2003), manifold regularization (Belkin et al. 2006), modified adsorption (Talukdar and
Crammer 2009) and measure propagation (Subramanya and Bilmes 2011) are the most
popular algorithms that have been used in this area.
Wang et al. (2015b) applied a graph-based semi-supervised method for classifying twits into
six different classes. Its experimental results showdesirable performance of graphmethod. Lu
(2015), proposed a model based on social relations and text similarity has been suggested in
micro-blog sentiment analysis. It usedmicro-blog/micro-blog relations to build a graph-based
semi-supervised classifier. Experiments on two real-world datasets show that Its graph-based
semi-supervised model outperforms the existing state-of-the-art models.
5.1.2.5. Generative models Generative model defines a distribution on the inputs and the
training is conducted for each class. Then the Bayes rule can be used to predict the belonging
of the sample to the class at the time of testing phase. According to the dataset, we consider
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1519
{
x(i), y(i)
}
the pair where x(i) is the ith document of the training set, y(i) ∈ {− 1,+ 1} and N
is the number of training samples. There will be two training models (Mesnil et al. 2015):
p+(x|y=+1) Means
{
x(i)with condition y(i) = +1
}
p−(x|y=+1) Means
{
x(i)with condition y(i) = −1
}
According to Bayes rule at the test time, for input (x) we have relation 9 (Mesnil et al.
2015):
R = p+ (x|y = +1)
p− (x|y = −1)
× p (y = 1)
p (y = −1)
(9)
In relation 9, if R > 1, x belongs to the positive class, otherwise it will belong to the negative
class. In Mesnil et al. (2015) authors proposed a powerful and at the same time very simple
ensemble system for sentiment analysis. Three conceptually different baseline models are
combined in this system: one based on a generative approach (language models), one based
on sentences’ continuous representation, and one based on a clever TF-IDF reweighing of
document’s bag-of-word representation. Each of these threemodels contributes to the success
of overall system, lead to achieving high performance on IMDB9 movie review dataset.
Semi-supervised techniques to classify the sentiments have been summarized in Tables 5
and 6. Table 5 contains the latest researches conducted in this field and we discuss in Table 6,
the total assessment of these methods and the expression of their advantages as well as their
drawbacks.
5.1.3 Unsupervised learning (clustering)
In unsupervised learningmethods, a set of training samples is consideredwhich only the input
value is specified for them and the accurate information about the output is not available. The
clustering-based approaches are able to produce moderately accurate analysis results without
any human participation, linguist knowledge or training time (Li and Liu 2014). Clustering
is considered as an unsupervised method which aims to find a structure in data collections
that have not been classified yet and no pre-defined classes already exists. In the other words,
clustering is putting data in different groups in which, the members of each group are similar
to each other from a particular point of view. Thus, the data of a cluster have the maximum
similarity and the data of different clusters have minimum similarity. The similarity criterion
is the distance i.e. the samples being closer to each other are placed in the same cluster. For
example, in documents clustering, the closeness of two sample documents can be determined
based on the number of common words of the two documents.
The application of clustering on sentiments analysis was introduced in Li and Liu (2012),
where feature extractionwas done by calculating theTF-IDF criterion.Based on this criterion,
the terms are chosen as feature which has more TF-IDF value using relation 10 (Li and Liu
2012). In this relation, TF is proportional to the frequency of a term in the document and
IDF is considered as a weighting factor which inversely represents the dispersion amount of
a term in different documents.
TF − IDF = tf∗i idfi = ni∑
i ni
∗ log
M
d fi
(10)
where n is the number of repetition of word i in the text, m is the total number of sentences
and idf is the total number of sentences including the word i .
9 www.IMDB.com.
123
www.IMDB.com
1520 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Ta
bl
e
5
Su
m
m
ar
y
of
so
m
e
of
th
e
re
ce
nt
ar
tic
le
s
in
se
m
i-
su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
ba
se
d
op
in
io
n
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
R
ef
er
en
ce
s
Y
ea
r
L
ev
el
Te
ch
ni
qu
e
us
ed
A
pp
lic
at
io
n
D
at
a
ba
se
L
an
gu
ag
e
L
ie
ta
l.
(2
01
2)
20
12
–
G
ra
ph
-b
as
ed
,
m
ul
ti-
vi
ew
le
ar
ni
ng
Pr
od
uc
tr
ev
ie
w
(c
el
lp
ho
ne
)
Fo
ru
m
s
C
hi
ne
se
H
on
g
et
al
.(
20
14
)
20
14
–
Se
lf
-t
ra
in
in
g
A
na
ly
ze
us
er
s
em
ot
io
n
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
Z
im
m
er
m
an
n
et
al
.(
20
14
)
20
14
Se
lf
-t
ra
in
in
g
Pr
od
uc
tr
ev
ie
w
an
d
m
ov
ie
s
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
H
aj
m
oh
am
m
ad
i
et
al
.(
20
14
)
20
14
–
M
ul
ti-
vi
ew
le
ar
ni
ng
B
oo
k
re
vi
ew
A
m
az
on
E
ng
lis
h,
Fr
en
ch
,
G
er
m
an
,
Ja
pa
ne
se
W
an
g
et
al
.
(2
01
5b
)
20
15
–
G
ra
ph
-b
as
ed
In
te
nt
tw
ee
ts
in
to
si
x
ca
te
go
ri
es
na
m
el
y
(f
oo
d
an
d
dr
in
k,
tr
av
el
,c
ar
ee
r
an
d
ed
uc
at
io
n,
go
od
an
d
se
rv
ic
es
,e
ve
nt
an
d
ac
tiv
ite
s
an
d
tr
ifl
e)
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
C
ar
te
r
an
d
In
kp
en
(2
01
5)
20
15
–
C
o-
tr
ai
ni
ng
Pr
od
uc
t(
la
p
ta
ps
)
an
d
se
rv
ic
es
(h
ot
el
)
Se
m
E
va
l-
20
14
E
ng
lis
h
W
an
g
et
al
.
(2
01
5c
)
20
15
–
C
o-
tr
ai
ni
ng
Pr
ed
ic
tt
he
us
er
ge
nd
er
W
ei
bo
C
hi
ne
se
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1521
Ta
bl
e
5
co
nt
in
ue
d
R
ef
er
en
ce
s
Y
ea
r
L
ev
el
Te
ch
ni
qu
e
us
ed
A
pp
lic
at
io
n
D
at
a
ba
se
L
an
gu
ag
e
C
la
yp
o
an
d
Ja
iy
en
(2
01
5)
20
15
–
G
ra
ph
-b
as
ed
H
ea
lth
ca
re
re
fo
rm
an
d
po
lit
ic
s
(A
m
er
ic
an
pr
es
id
en
tia
l
de
ba
te
on
Se
pt
em
be
r
26
,
20
08
)
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
M
es
ni
le
ta
l.
(2
01
5)
20
15
–
G
en
er
at
iv
e
m
od
el
s
Fi
lm
re
vi
ew
IM
D
B
E
ng
lis
h
K
ha
n
et
al
.(
20
16
)
20
16
–
G
ra
ph
-b
as
ed
Fi
lm
re
vi
ew
C
or
ne
ll
m
ov
ie
re
vi
ew
E
ng
lis
h
Io
si
fid
is
an
d
N
tu
ts
i(
20
17
)
20
17
–
Se
lf
-t
ra
in
in
g,
C
o-
tr
ai
ni
ng
St
re
am
da
ta
T
Se
nt
im
en
t1
5
E
ng
lis
h
R
ou
te
ta
l.
(2
01
7)
20
17
–
C
o-
tr
ai
ni
ng
H
ot
el
re
vi
ew
go
ld
st
an
da
rd
E
ng
lis
h
123
1522 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Ta
bl
e
6
C
om
pa
ri
ng
se
m
i-
su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
m
et
ho
ds
in
op
in
io
n
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
Se
m
i-
su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
A
dv
an
ta
ge
s
D
is
ad
va
nt
ag
es
A
ss
es
sm
en
t
Se
lf
-t
ra
in
in
g
Si
m
pl
ic
ity
of
th
e
m
et
ho
d
If
th
er
e
is
an
er
ro
r
in
th
e
in
pu
ts
am
pl
e
th
er
e
is
a
po
ss
ib
ili
ty
to
st
re
ng
th
en
it
T
ra
di
tio
na
ls
el
f-
tr
ai
ni
ng
m
et
ho
d
ha
s
po
or
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
N
o
de
pe
nd
en
ce
to
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
m
od
el
Se
ns
iti
ve
to
ou
tli
er
C
o-
tr
ai
ni
ng
It
re
ac
he
s
to
hi
gh
ac
cu
ra
cy
in
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
w
ith
ve
ry
lim
ite
d
nu
m
be
r
of
la
be
le
d
da
ta
Po
or
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
in
th
e
da
ta
se
ts
w
hi
ch
on
ly
ha
ve
a
un
iq
ue
vi
ew
po
in
t
V
er
y
se
ns
iti
ve
to
da
ta
M
an
y
fe
at
ur
es
m
us
tb
e
av
ai
la
bl
e
to
ac
hi
ev
e
an
op
tim
al
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
D
if
fe
re
nt
ac
cu
ra
cy
in
si
m
pl
e
an
d
co
m
pl
ex
do
m
ai
ns
G
ra
ph
-b
as
ed
N
o
ne
ed
fo
r
de
ep
lin
gu
is
tic
an
al
ys
is
an
d
m
an
ua
l
at
te
m
pt
s
Se
ns
iti
ve
to
no
is
e
G
oo
d
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
in
m
an
y
na
tu
ra
ll
an
gu
ag
e
pr
oc
es
si
ng
pr
ob
le
m
s
B
e
ab
le
to
co
pe
w
ith
bi
na
ry
an
d
m
ul
ti-
cl
as
s
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
ns
It
s
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
is
se
ns
iti
ve
to
gr
ap
h
st
ru
ct
ur
e
It
is
an
al
te
rn
at
iv
e
an
d
co
m
pe
tit
iv
e
m
et
ho
d
ag
ai
ns
to
th
er
se
m
i-
su
pe
rv
is
ed
m
et
ho
ds
Sa
m
e
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
in
si
m
pl
e
an
d
co
m
pl
ex
do
m
ai
ns
M
ul
ti-
vi
ew
le
ar
ni
ng
E
ffi
ci
en
ti
n
cr
os
s-
lin
gu
al
is
su
es
an
d
va
ri
ou
s
lin
gu
is
tic
re
so
ur
ce
s
A
fa
ilu
re
w
ill
ar
is
e
if
yo
u
ch
oo
se
in
ap
pr
op
ri
at
e
la
ng
ua
ge
w
ith
lo
w
vo
ca
bu
la
ry
as
a
so
ur
ce
la
ng
ua
ge
U
si
ng
se
ve
ra
ld
if
fe
re
nt
vi
ew
po
in
ts
ra
th
er
th
an
on
e
vi
ew
po
in
t,
le
ad
s
to
go
od
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
G
en
er
at
iv
e
m
od
el
s
W
he
n
th
e
se
to
f
la
be
le
d
tr
ai
ni
ng
sa
m
pl
es
ar
e
to
o
lo
w
,i
tc
an
re
ac
h
to
hi
gh
ac
cu
ra
cy
L
ow
ef
fic
ie
nc
y
In
th
e
m
os
tc
as
es
do
no
tp
er
fo
rm
w
el
l
In
fle
xi
bi
lit
y
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1523
Unsupervised Learning
Hierarchical
Clustering
Partitioning
Clustering
Agglomerative Algorithms Divisive Algorithms K-means Fuzzy C-means
Fig. 8 Classification of clustering algorithm in opinion classification
Since then, many algorithms have been proposed for data clustering in the opinion mining
area. As is shown in Fig. 8, these algorithms can be categorized into two main classes (Li
and Liu 2014): partition clustering and hierarchical clustering.
5.1.3.1. Partition clustering In the partitioning clustering approach, we deal with a collection
of clusters that do not have overlap and any object will be assigned only to one cluster. The
objective of partition clustering is to divide data in such a way that data within a cluster
have the most similarity and on the other hand have the most distance with the data of other
clusters (Li and Liu 2014). The similarity criterion is the Euclidean distance and eventually
it can create a super spherical environment. Sensitivity to the noise is the main disadvantage
of this method.
K-means
One of typical algorithms in clustering is K-mean. In this algorithm, firstly K centers are
defined randomly for each of K clusters. In next step, each of the input data set is linked
to the closest center. After the end of this step, new centers are calculated again for batches
obtained from previous step. In next step, a connection is established between each set data
and the nearest obtained center (Claypo and Jaiyen 2015). Hence, the value of K is changed
in each repeating round of this loop. This algorithm will be finished when no change occur
in the value of K. The aim of running this algorithm is to minimize the target function. Target
function is defined as relation 11 (Claypo and Jaiyen 2015):
J =
n∑
i=1
k∑
j=1
xi − c2j (11)
According to relation 11, ‖x j −c j‖2 calculates the distance of xi to cluster center c j , usually
using Euclidean distance of relation 12 (Claypo and Jaiyen 2015).
d(x, y) =
√√√√
n∑
i=1
(xi − y j ) (12)
where d denotes distance and n is the number of data.
K-means is an appropriate algorithm for clustering-based sentiment analysis. An example
of clustering-based sentiment analysis can be seen in Li and Liu (2014) which have intro-
duced some new methods to expand the existing capabilities of clustering and pursues two
following steps: In the first step, the contents will be initially processed in order to identify
123
1524 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
concrete expressions whichwill increase the accuracy. In the next step sentiment analysis will
be conducted through voting mechanism and distance measuring method. Its experimental
results show that the sentiment analysis using clustering has acceptable quality and is a very
good option to recognize the neutral viewpoints. In Claypo and Jaiyen (2015), authors have
proposed an opinion mining on Thai restaurants review using K-means clustering and MRF
feature selection technique to select the relevant features. It reduced the number of features
and the computational times. Then, K-means is adapted for clustering the Thai restaurants
review into two positive and negative groups. The paper concluded that K-means clustering
is compatible with MRF features selection since it can achieve the best performance in the
clustering. Although this method is appropriate for big datasets but it could terminates to a
local optimum and its usage is limited to situations where we can define the centroids for
data. Another weakness of this algorithm is that it is highly sensitive against the noises and
also the choice of initial centroids (Li and Liu 2014).
Fuzzy C-means
The number of clusters (C) is previously known in this algorithm. The target function for this
algorithm is as relation 13 (Acampora and Cosma 2015).
J =
d∑
i=1
c∑
j=1
μm
i j‖xi − v2j‖ (13)
where m > 1 is a real number which is considered 2 by default. xi is the ith sample and v j is
center of cluster j. μij shows the measure of dependency of the ith sample in the jth cluster.
|| ∗ || indicates sample distance to the center of the cluster in which, Euclidian distance is
used. Matrix µ can be defined from μij which is a value between 0 and 1. The order of the
membership and the centers of clusters can be calculated from relations 14 and 15 (Acampora
and Cosma 2015):
μij = 1
∑c
k=1(xi − v2j/xi − v2k )
2
/
m−1
(14)
v j =
∑c
i=1 u
m
ik xi∑d
i=1 u
m
ij
(15)
Zimmermann et al. (2016) presented a framework to extract implicit features from given com-
ments about products and to identify their polarity. Their proposed method has a mechanism
which merges clusters having common features. Fuzzy C-means method is also used in this
paper. Acampora and Cosma (2015) performed a comparison of fuzzy methods performance
in predicting rating of products on 6 datasets. They used an effective computational intelli-
gence framework based on genetic algorithm to minimize data dimensions. Their research
results show that the proposed framework is useful for predicting rating.
5.1.3.2. Hierarchical clustering Hierarchical clustering is actually a set of nested clusters
which organized as a tree (Li and Liu 2014). In this method, clusters or groups are allowed
to have sub-groups. Hierarchical clustering methods can be divided into two main categories
based on their structure.
Divisive methods
In divisive (also called top-down) method, first, all data are considered as one cluster and
then those data which have less similarity to each other will be broken to separate clusters
through an iterative process until the clusters become single-member.
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1525
Bottom-up or agglomerative
In agglomerative (also called bottom-up) method, first, each data is considered as a separate
cluster and, in any step, the data that are more similar to each other are combined until we
eventually achieve to one or a specified number of clusters.
An effective method for unsupervised clustering for collecting opinions from idea portals
is used in De and Kopparapu (2013). Their clustering technique is based on agglomerative
algorithm. In Shi andChang (2008), the authors proposed amethod to automatically construct
a product hierarchical concept model based on the online review of the products. Their three-
phase method can be summarized as identifying nouns from the review dataset, creating
a contextual representation vector for every nouns, and top-down noun clustering in order
to create a concept hierarchy. The results of the experiments conducted on three sets of
online reviews (in China and English) illustrated the qualitative and quantitative effectiveness
and robustness of this approach. The summary of unsupervised techniques to classify the
sentiments is represented in Tables 7 and 8.
5.2 Lexicon-based approach
The words containing sentiment are used to express the positive or negative feelings. For
example, words such as “good”, “beautiful” and “amazing” induce positive feeling to human
and words like “bad”, “ugly” and “scary” are the words with negative polarity (Liu 2015,
2012). By word’s polarity, we mean the feeling and assessment that the word brings in the
mind. It should be noted that, the words that bear the sentiment are mostly adjectives and
adverbs but some names like “trash” and “garbage” and verbs like “hate” and “love” have
sentiment as well (Liu 2012). In the lexicon of opinion mining, each word that contains the
sentiment has come along with the polarity of that word. This lexicon may be weighted or
un-weighted. Generally, weight is a number or a probability that is considered for a word to
show the level of positivity or negativity. In fact, lexicon based methods are used to calculate
the orientation of documents according to the semantic orientation of words and phrases
within documents. This method focuses on individual words and doesn’t consider the words
having comparative sense such as: “the best”, “worse”, etc (Liu 2012). In this method, a
lexicon of sentiments can be found by using the text analysis. Also in some cases, natural
language processing is used to find the syntactic structure and help to find the semantic
relationships (Moreo et al. 2012; Caro and Grella 2013). The reviews classification using
semantic orientation applied to unsupervised classification in Turney (2002) for the first time
that was based on syntactic patterns and POS tags. This method has three main steps:
1. Extract phrases containing adjectives or adverbs,
2. Estimate the semantic orientation of each phrase (which uses PMI-IR to calculate seman-
tic orientation), the point-wise mutual information formula is defined by relation 16
(Cover and Thomas 2012).
Mi (w) = log
(
f (w).pi (w)
f (w).pi
)
= log
(
pi(w)
pi
)
(16)
Mi (w) has been defined between the wordw and the class i .w has a positive relationship
to class i , ifMi (w) is greater than zero and has a negative relationship, ifMi (w) is smaller
than zero. The expected co-occurrence of class I and word w, on the basis of mutual
independence, is given by (w) · pi , and the true co-occurrence is given by f (w) · pi (w) .
3. Classify the review based on the average semantic orientation of the phrases.
Lexicon based methods can be classified into two main groups (Liu 2012) as shown in
Fig. 9. Researchers have used different methods to compile the sentiment words by creating
123
1526 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Ta
bl
e
7
Su
m
m
ar
y
of
so
m
e
of
th
e
re
ce
nt
ar
tic
le
s
on
un
su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
ba
se
d
op
in
io
n
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
R
ef
er
en
ce
s
Y
ea
r
L
ev
el
Te
ch
ni
qu
e
us
ed
A
pp
lic
at
io
n
D
at
a
ba
se
L
an
gu
ag
e
Sh
ia
nd
C
ha
ng
(2
00
8)
20
08
–
D
iv
is
iv
e
al
go
ri
th
m
Pr
od
uc
t(
ce
ll
ph
on
e,
m
p3
pl
ay
er
)
an
d
se
rv
ic
es
(h
ot
el
)
C
tr
ip
,A
m
az
on
E
ng
lis
h,
C
hi
ne
se
T
sa
gk
al
id
ou
et
al
.(
20
11
)
20
11
–
K
-m
ea
ns
Pe
op
le
em
ot
io
n
la
de
n
re
ac
tio
ns
an
d
at
tit
ud
e
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
L
ia
nd
L
iu
(2
01
2)
20
12
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
K
-m
ea
ns
Fi
lm
re
vi
ew
IM
D
B
E
ng
lis
h
V
ak
al
ia
nd
K
af
et
si
os
(2
01
2)
20
12
–
D
iv
is
iv
e
al
go
ri
th
m
E
ff
ec
t-
aw
ar
e
co
m
m
un
ity
de
te
ct
io
n
(c
ul
tu
ra
l,
so
ci
al
,
ec
on
om
ic
al
,
po
lit
ic
al
ev
en
ts
)
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
D
e
an
d
K
op
pa
ra
pu
(2
01
3)
20
13
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
A
gg
lo
m
er
at
iv
e
al
go
ri
th
m
C
om
pa
ny
id
ea
s
po
rt
al
si
te
C
om
pa
ny
id
ea
s
po
rt
al
si
te
E
ng
lis
h
A
rc
ha
m
ba
ul
t
et
al
.(
20
13
)
20
13
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
A
gg
lo
m
er
at
iv
e
al
go
ri
th
m
Tw
itt
er
(u
s
ci
tie
s
an
d
el
ec
tio
n
20
12
da
ta
se
t)
Tw
itt
er
(u
s
ci
tie
s
an
d
el
ec
tio
n
20
12
da
ta
se
t)
E
ng
lis
h
C
la
yp
o
an
d
Ja
iy
en
(2
01
5)
20
15
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
K
-m
ea
ns
R
es
ta
ur
an
tr
ev
ie
w
T
ri
pa
dv
is
or
E
ng
lis
h
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1527
Ta
bl
e
7
co
nt
in
ue
d
R
ef
er
en
ce
s
Y
ea
r
L
ev
el
Te
ch
ni
qu
e
us
ed
A
pp
lic
at
io
n
D
at
a
ba
se
L
an
gu
ag
e
G
up
ta
et
al
.
(2
01
5)
20
15
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
K
-m
ea
ns
U
se
rs
m
oo
d
sw
in
g
an
al
yz
er
Fa
ce
bo
ok
E
ng
lis
h
G
up
ta
et
al
.
(2
01
5)
20
15
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
K
-m
ea
ns
U
se
rs
m
oo
d
sw
in
g
an
al
yz
er
Fa
ce
bo
ok
E
ng
lis
h
Ph
u
et
al
.
(2
01
7)
20
17
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
Fu
zz
y
C
-m
ea
ns
M
ov
ie
re
vi
ew
s
Fa
ce
bo
ok
E
ng
lis
h
H
ua
ng
et
al
.
(2
01
7)
20
17
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
L
at
en
tD
ir
ic
hl
et
al
lo
ca
tio
n
(L
D
A
)
D
if
fe
re
nt
to
pi
c
W
ei
bo
E
ng
lis
h,
C
hi
ne
se
G
ar
ci
a-
Pa
bl
os
et
al
.(
20
17
)
20
17
A
sp
ec
tl
ev
el
L
at
en
tD
ir
ic
hl
et
al
lo
ca
tio
n
(L
D
A
)
H
ot
el
s,
re
st
au
ra
nt
s,
el
ec
tr
on
ic
de
vi
ce
s
Se
m
E
va
l-
20
16
E
ng
lis
h,
Sp
an
is
h,
Fr
en
ch
an
d
D
ut
ch
Pa
nd
ey
et
al
.
(2
01
7)
20
17
D
oc
um
en
tl
ev
el
K
-m
ea
ns
cu
ck
oo
se
ar
ch
m
et
ho
d
(C
SK
)
D
if
fe
re
nt
to
pi
c
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
123
1528 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Table 8 Comparing unsupervised learning (clustering) methods in opinion classification
Unsupervised learning Advantages Disadvantages Assessment
Partitioning clustering
K-means These algorithms
perform
complexity in a
linear time to
make them
proper for large
dataset
It doesn’t have enough
accuracy if there are
ambiguities
Low-cost, efficient and very
convenient method to
analyze the sentiments
The algorithm
does not need to
pre-know the
class of a
document
The problem of these
algorithms is their
sensitivity to the initial
center points and the
assumption of knowing
number of clusters
The result is predictably poor
in terms of accuracy and
stability
Does not need a
training process
These algorithms cannot
handle outliers and noise
well and cannot perform on
non-convex clusters
This means that it
is free from
human
participation
Clustering results are unstable
due to the random selection
of centroids in k-means
Low amount of
memory
required
Fuzzy
c-means
It always
converges
Computation time is high FCM is slower than k-means
It is sensitive to primary
guesses and may stop at
local minimums
It is noise-sensitive
Hierarchical clustering
Agglomerative
algorithm
Do not dependent
to the number of
clusters and
center of gravity
The time complexity in
hierarchical algorithms is
high, o(n2) for single-link
algorithms, and (n2 logn)
for complete-link
algorithms
Its high cost is a limitation in
large scale dataset
applications although their
good cluster qualities
Good performance
against the noise
Has more challenges than
divisive method
Divisive
algorithm
Good performance
against the noise
Require large amount of
memory
Even though getting efficient
accumulating qualities, the
expenditure to be allocated
to this project can be
considered a restricting
factor for its large scale
application
Do not relying on
the number of
clusters and
center of gravity
Nonlinear time complexity
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1529
Fig. 9 Classification of
lexicon-based approaches in
opinion classification
Lexicon-based Approach
Corpus-based
Approach
Dictionary-based
Approach
lexicon. Lexicon can be created manually, which is a very difficult and time consuming task,
or can be created automatically, that is a few words are used as seed to extend the lexicon
lists. Dictionary and corpus based methods include the automatic methods for creating the
lexicon which we will describe them in this section (Liu 2012).
5.2.1 Dictionary-based approach
The use of dictionary method to compile the sentiments is common. Since lexicons basically
contain lists of synonyms. This method is, in fact, based on the bootstrapping technique. The
procedure in this method is as follows: First, in order to create a small set, a few sentiment
words will be identified manually which have positive or negative semantic orientation.
Then the algorithm helps to grow this collection by searching in WORD NET10 and other
online dictionaries to find synonyms and antonyms (Liu 2012). This process continues until
no new words can be detected. In Qiu et al. (2011) and Xia et al. (2015) some sample
of bootstrapping methods can be seen. Qiu et al. (2011) suggested supportive results by
bootstrapping propagation and a few aspects as seeds. However this method has three main
issues:
1. In bootstrapping, aspects are used directly as seeds. Hence, specific aspects (e.g. motion
image quality) restrict the propagation ability. Accordingly, in this approach, manpower
should be assigned carefully for choosing general aspects (e.g. quality). In fact, general
aspects can be extracted by a generalization treatment on specific aspects.
2. Propagation is applied on the test data directly. However the test data are often very small
which leads to further reduction in propagation ability.
3. Although compiling dependency rules is difficult and laborious, these rules are very
important for the process of propagation. There are interesting patterns for combining
general aspects and a strict condition could be assigned for controlling these patterns’
quality.
The lexicon method has been used in order to analyze Twitter sentiments in Pandarachalil
et al. (2015). Twitter sentiment analysis consists of two steps, in pre-processing step, the
polarity of sentiments is determined and then sentiment analysis is performed. The tweets’
polarity is estimated by three sentiment lexicons as SENTIWORDNET, SENTISLANGNET,
and SENTICNET.
• SENTICNET It is a public word source made by sentic computing. The polarity score
for each concept is calculated in [1, −1] interval.
• SENTIWORDNET It is a common word source used to analyze the sentiments and it is
derived fromWORDNET and the polarity score is calculated in [0, 1] interval. There are
around 117,569 available sentisynsets which are all unigrams, so, SENTIWORDNET
10 http://wordnet.princeton.edu/.
123
http://wordnet.princeton.edu/
1530 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
provide the sentiment score only in syntactic level. This method fails in providing the
sentiment scores for phrases like “no” and “very good”.
• SENTISLANGNET This lexicon derived from SENTIWORDNET and SENTICNET,
which created for slangs. Since tweets are rich in slangs, abbreviations and emoticons,
SENTISLANGNET can be so useful for sentiment analysis in Twitter.
Saif et al. (2016) introduced a lexicon-based approach called Senticircle for analyzing Twitter
opinions, which has desirable performance in determining particular background opinion
orientation.
5.2.2 Corpus-based approach
As is well-known in the sentiment analysis area, the semantic orientation of aword is domain-
dependent. The compilation of a set of polar words, the most suitable for obtaining domain-
dependent opinion word is that known as the corpus-based approach (Molina-González et al.
2015). This method relies on the syntactic rules. The main idea of this method has been
proposed in Hatzivassiloglou and McKeown (1997), in which, a list of adjectives are made
containing the sentiments and then new adjectives alongwith their orientation are determined
using some other linguistic constraints. A few rules are also applied on the connective terms,
such as: ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’ etc. called sentiment consistency. For example, one of these rules
is on the conjunction word “and” in this way that, joining the adjectives together do not
change in the initial orientation. Consider the sentence “this film is good and attractive”, the
conjunctionword “and”has caused twoadjectives of “good” and “attractive” join to eachother
which according to this rule when the word “good” is known as a positive, “attractive” is also
considered positive (Liu 2012). According to the lack of linguistic sources except for English
which is one of important issues in opinion mining field, developing lexicons are critical
for classification in various languages. Molina-González et al. (2015) addressed developing
opinion lexicon and incorporating domain information for Spanish language classification
systems. Their results indicate the integrity of new lexicon. Liao et al. (2016) proposed
a new approach which incorporates domain lexicon with groups of feature using syntax
and semantic. Their experiment results in real dataset showed that their proposed approach
outperformed other baselines of opinion target extraction. The corpus-based approach helps
to solve the problem of finding sentiment words with specific orientation context, but its
performance varies in different domains, because a word may be positive in one domain and
negative in another domain. It has been proved that the dictionary based method is more
useful because it is difficult anyway to prepare large entries that can cover all English words
(Liu and Zhang 2012).
Table 9 shows a number of recent studies concentrated on this area.
5.3 Comparing techniques of sentiment classification
The comparison between two main techniques of opinion mining is expressed in Table 10.
In this table, two machine learning and lexicon technique have been assessed in terms of
efficiency, accuracy, strengths and weaknesses. Although the accuracy rate of the supervised
learning approach is good, their cost is high for several reasons and also slow efficiency (slow
on training and fast on testing). On the other hand, Lexicon methods, do not demand human
involvement, their accuracy is limited and have very fast efficiency. The accuracy rate of
clustering-based approaches is moderate and they have fast efficiency. Figure 10 also shows
an overall view of several classification techniques which have been used in opinion mining
and sentiment analysis.
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1531
Ta
bl
e
9
Su
m
m
ar
y
of
so
m
e
of
th
e
re
ce
nt
ar
tic
le
s
on
le
xi
co
n
ap
pr
oa
ch
ba
se
d
op
in
io
n
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
R
ef
er
en
ce
s
Y
ea
r
L
ev
el
Te
ch
ni
qu
e
us
ed
A
pp
lic
at
io
n
D
at
a
ba
se
la
ng
ua
ge
Ta
bo
ad
a
et
al
.
(2
01
1)
20
11
Se
nt
en
ce
le
ve
l
D
ic
tio
na
ry
an
d
co
rp
us
ba
se
d
Pr
od
uc
ta
nd
se
rv
ic
es
,fi
lm
E
pi
ni
on
s,
R
ot
te
n
to
m
at
oe
s,
IM
D
B
E
ng
lis
h
M
ol
in
a-
G
on
zá
le
z
et
al
.(
20
14
)
20
14
–
C
or
pu
s
ba
se
d
H
ot
el
re
vi
ew
s
T
ri
pa
dv
is
or
Sp
an
is
h
Sh
ar
m
a
et
al
.
(2
01
4)
20
14
D
oc
um
en
t
le
ve
l
D
ic
tio
na
ry
ba
se
d
Fi
lm
re
vi
ew
s
R
ot
te
n
to
m
at
oe
s,
IM
D
B
E
ng
lis
h
R
ao
et
al
.(
20
14
)
20
14
W
or
d
le
ve
l
D
ic
tio
na
ry
ba
se
d
Id
en
tif
yi
ng
so
ci
al
em
ot
io
n
on
ce
rt
ai
n
en
tit
ie
s
an
d
ne
w
s
ev
en
ts
N
ew
s
si
te
s
(s
in
e
so
ci
et
y)
an
d
Se
m
E
va
l
E
ng
lis
h
C
hi
ne
se
Fe
ng
et
al
.(
20
15
)
20
14
–
D
ic
tio
na
ry
ba
se
d
Id
en
tif
yi
ng
so
ci
al
em
ot
io
n
W
ei
bo
C
hi
ne
se
M
ol
in
a-
G
on
zá
le
z
et
al
.(
20
15
)
20
14
–
C
or
pu
s
ba
se
d
Pr
od
uc
t,
ho
te
l,
m
ov
ie
E
pi
ni
on
s
sp
an
is
h
Ji
m
én
ez
-Z
af
ra
et
al
.(
20
15
)
20
15
A
sp
ec
t
le
ve
l
D
ic
tio
na
ry
an
d
co
rp
us
ba
se
d
Pr
od
uc
t(
la
pt
op
)
an
d
se
rv
ic
e
(r
es
ta
ur
an
t)
Se
m
E
va
l2
01
4
E
ng
lis
h
an
d
Sp
an
is
h
C
hi
ns
ha
an
d
Jo
se
ph
(2
01
5)
20
15
A
sp
ec
t
le
ve
l
D
ic
tio
na
ry
ba
se
d
R
es
ta
ur
an
tr
ev
ie
w
T
ri
pA
dv
is
or
E
ng
lis
h
R
at
ha
n
et
al
.
(2
01
7)
20
17
A
sp
ec
t
le
ve
l
D
ic
tio
na
ry
ba
se
d
M
ob
ile
ph
on
e
re
vi
ew
s
Tw
itt
er
E
ng
lis
h
Z
ho
u
et
al
.(
20
17
)
20
17
–
C
or
pu
s
ba
se
d
Pr
od
uc
t(
ta
bl
et
)
K
in
dl
e
Fi
re
H
D
ta
bl
et
s
E
ng
lis
h
C
ha
o
an
d
Y
an
g
(2
01
8)
20
18
A
sp
ec
t
le
ve
l
C
or
pu
s
ba
se
d
R
es
ta
ur
an
t
re
vi
ew
s
IP
E
E
N
,T
ri
pA
dv
is
or
C
hi
ne
se
123
1532 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Ta
bl
e
10
C
om
pa
ri
ng
m
ac
hi
ne
le
ar
ni
ng
te
ch
ni
qu
es
an
d
le
xi
co
n
ap
pr
oa
ch
in
op
in
io
n
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
Se
nt
im
en
tc
la
ss
ifi
ca
tio
n
te
ch
ni
qu
es
E
ffi
ci
en
cy
A
cc
ur
ac
y
St
re
ng
th
s
W
ea
kn
es
se
s
M
ac
hi
ne
le
ar
ni
ng
Su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
Sl
ow
V
er
y
hi
gh
H
av
in
g
th
e
ab
ili
ty
to
an
al
yz
e
nu
m
er
ou
s
ca
te
go
ri
es
D
ep
en
de
nc
e
on
th
e
la
be
le
d
tr
ai
ni
ng
do
cu
m
en
ts
E
ff
ec
tiv
en
es
s
in
th
e
di
sc
ov
er
y
of
su
bj
ec
tiv
ity
is
su
e
R
eq
ui
re
s
th
e
pr
es
en
ce
of
hu
m
an
ef
fo
rt
an
d
lin
gu
is
tic
kn
ow
le
dg
e
N
oi
se
-r
es
is
ta
nt
H
ig
h
co
st
R
eq
ui
re
tim
e
to
tr
ai
n,
an
d
fo
r
hi
gh
di
m
en
si
on
al
da
ta
,t
he
pr
oc
es
s
is
hi
gh
ly
tim
e
co
ns
um
in
g
R
ep
ly
on
hu
m
an
pa
rt
ic
ip
at
io
n
Se
m
i-
su
pe
rv
is
ed
le
ar
ni
ng
M
ed
iu
m
H
ig
h
G
oo
d
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
if
th
er
e
ar
e
am
bi
gu
iti
es
in
th
e
re
vi
ew
If
th
er
e
is
no
is
e
in
th
e
un
la
be
le
d
sa
m
pl
es
,t
he
cl
as
si
fic
at
io
n
fa
ce
s
w
ith
tr
ou
bl
e
C
ou
ld
he
lp
to
ac
hi
ev
e
th
e
hi
gh
es
ta
cc
ur
ac
y
us
in
g
as
lit
tle
hu
m
an
an
no
ta
tio
n
ef
fo
rt
as
po
ss
ib
le
U
ns
up
er
vi
se
d
le
ar
ni
ng
(c
lu
st
er
in
g)
Fa
st
M
ed
iu
m
It
do
es
no
tr
eq
ui
re
m
uc
h
hu
m
an
pa
rt
ic
ip
at
io
n
It
s
ab
ili
ty
to
an
al
yz
e
m
ul
tip
le
ca
te
go
ri
es
ha
s
no
ts
til
lb
ee
n
pr
ov
en
N
ot
re
si
st
an
ta
ga
in
st
th
e
no
is
e
It
ne
ed
s
to
be
ef
fic
ie
nt
an
d
w
id
el
y
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
T
he
nu
m
be
r
of
cl
us
te
rs
in
m
os
tc
as
es
is
un
kn
ow
n
T
he
ac
cu
ra
cy
ca
n
so
m
et
im
es
be
re
la
tiv
el
y
lo
w
In
st
ab
ili
ty
of
re
su
lts
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1533
Ta
bl
e
10
co
nt
in
ue
d
Se
nt
im
en
tc
la
ss
ifi
ca
tio
n
te
ch
ni
qu
es
E
ffi
ci
en
cy
A
cc
ur
ac
y
St
re
ng
th
s
W
ea
kn
es
se
s
L
ex
ic
on
-b
as
ed
D
ic
tio
na
ry
-b
as
ed
V
er
y
fa
st
R
el
at
iv
el
y
lo
w
D
oe
s
no
tr
eq
ui
re
an
y
la
be
le
d
tr
ai
ni
ng
sa
m
pl
es
U
na
bl
e
to
fin
d
th
e
op
in
io
n
w
or
ds
w
ith
th
e
sp
ec
ifi
c
co
nt
en
to
ri
en
ta
tio
n
do
m
ai
n
w
hi
ch
is
no
ti
n
th
e
le
xi
co
n
E
as
y
ac
ce
ss
to
w
or
ds
le
xi
co
n
an
d
th
ei
r
or
ie
nt
at
io
n
D
is
co
m
fit
in
th
e
te
xt
s
w
ith
a
ce
rt
ai
n
se
m
an
tic
de
pe
nd
en
cy
Pr
ov
id
e
be
tte
r
re
su
lts
fo
r
le
ss
ba
nd
ed
do
m
ai
n
le
ss
ac
cu
ra
te
du
ri
ng
co
ns
id
er
at
io
n
of
di
ff
er
en
t
do
m
ai
ns
C
or
pu
s-
ba
se
d
V
er
y
fa
st
R
el
at
iv
el
y
lo
w
T
he
ab
ili
ty
to
fin
d
th
e
op
in
io
n
w
or
ds
w
ith
th
e
sp
ec
ifi
c
co
nt
en
to
ri
en
ta
tio
n
V
ar
ia
bl
e
pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
du
e
to
th
e
ex
te
nt
do
m
ai
n
of
le
xi
co
n
Pr
ov
id
es
be
tte
r
re
su
lts
w
he
n
do
m
ai
ns
ar
e
di
ff
er
en
t
T
he
di
ffi
cu
lty
to
pr
ov
id
e
la
rg
e
te
xt
s
w
ith
th
e
ab
ili
ty
to
co
ve
r
al
lt
he
te
xt
w
or
ds
C
an
no
tb
e
us
ed
al
on
e
123
1534 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
Machine Learning Lexicon-based Approach
Unsupervised
Learning
Semi-supervised
Learning
Supervised
Learning
Dictionary-based
Approach
Corpus-based
Approach
Opinion Classification Techniques
Hierarchical
Clustering
Partitioning
Clustering
Agglomerative
Algorithms
Probabilistic
Classification
Non-
probabilistic
Classification
Divisive
Algorithms
K-means
Fuzzy
C-means
Naïve Bayes
Bayesian
Network
Maximum
Entropy
Self-training
Co-training
Multi-view
Learning
Graph-based
Methods
Generative
Models
Support Vector
Machine
Neural Network
K-Nearest
Neighbour
Decision Tree
Rule-based
Fig. 10 An overall view of several classification techniques in opinion mining
6 Evaluation criteria
To evaluate the performance of different methods for text classification and sentiment anal-
ysis, four criteria are considered from information retrieval (Baeza-Yates and Ribeiro-Neto
1999; Olson and Delen 2008) including accuracy, precision, recall and f1-score which are
defined by Eqs. 17–20 (Alfaro et al. 2016). In these criteria Tp,Fn, Fp and Tn respectively
refer to the number of correct results that have been diagnosed correctly, the number of
incorrect results that have been diagnosed incorrectly, the number of incorrect results that
have been diagnosed correctly and the number of correct results that have been diagnosed
incorrectly. In all the above criteria, the result is ranged between 0 and 1; whatever it is closer
to 1, the performed operation has better results.
123
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining… 1535
• Accuracy criterion Accuracy is the proportion of appropriate classified results to the
entire population.
Accuracy = Tp + Tn
Tp + Tn + Fp + Fn
(17)
• Precision criterion Precision is the ratio of the correctness of the results within the
system outputs. This criterion indicates that the more the number of correct results and
the less the number of incorrect results is, the more is the precision of the performed
operation.
Precision = Tp
Tp+Fp
(18)
• Recall criterionRecall is the ratio of correct results that the system assigned compared to
the base of all results. In fact this criterion indicates that the higher the number of correct
results and the less the number of correct results that has been diagnosed incorrectly is,
the more is the recall power of performed operation.
Recall = Tp
Tp+Fn
(19)
• F1-score criterion Another popular index is F1 whose formula comes from the combi-
nation of precision and recall. This criterion indicates the amount of precision and recall
power of mentioned operation.
F1 = 2 ∗ precision · recall
precision + recall
(20)
• Kappa criterion Kappa is also a well-known criterion which measures the agreement
between two classifiers and is calculated using relation 21 (Ahmed and Danti 2016).
Kappa = P0 − Pe
1 − Pe
(21)
where P0 is the relative agreement of classifiers and Pe is the hypothetical probability of
chance agreement.
Moreover, there are some of more application-specific criteria which are used for evaluat-
ing opinionmining and sentiment analysis. For example, Jiang et al. (2017a) represents a new
evaluation metric to investigate the performance of its proposed method. It uses emoticons
as the benchmark of its approach as relation 22.
edb = 1
Nd
e
Nd
e∑
i=1
eei (22)
where Nd
e and ei are the number of emoticons and one emoticon of micro-blog d respectively.
eei is the emotion vector of an emoticon, and edb is the emotion vector of micro-blog d. Area
under curve (AUC) is another evaluation metric which has been used in Lv et al. (2017)
along with another well-known criteria such as precision, recall, and F1 score. The receiver
operating characteristic (ROC) curve has been quantified as AUC in the mentioned paper.
123
1536 F. Hemmatian, M. K. Sohrabi
7 Future direction
There are several open issues in opinion mining and sentiment analysis which should be
more addressed in the future. Some of the most important open issues in different aspects of
sentiment analysis can be listed as follows.
• Opinion mining can help discover and extract useful and profound knowledge resources
using the concept level sentiment analysis. The analysis of emotions at the level of the
concept, because of its action beyond the other three levels, has recently attracted the
attention of researchers.Usingdifferent approaches and combining themat the conceptual
level can be further investigated in the future (Bisio et al. 2017; Bajpai et al. 2017; Peng
et al. 2017; Cambria 2016; Jain and Jain 2017; Qazi et al. 2016).
• The tendency of the convolution neural network method is very high in the new articles.
In the future, it can be more focused on identifying neutral comments and improving
the performance of the models by using the convolution neural network method on large
corpus and domain dependent corpora (Xu et al. 2017; Majumder et al. 2017; Poria et al.
2016, 2017; Wehrmann et al. 2017; Chen et al. 2016; Jiang et al. 2017b).
8 Conclusions
During the last decade we have seen an increasing interest in processing and analyzing
unstructured data especially web-based data. Opinion mining is a research subject that has
had a significant growth and it has attracted the attention of many researchers from the
computer to management sciences in recent years. In this paper, we have briefly examined
the opinion mining area and its related classification techniques. The aim of this paper is to
develop a proper survey by examining the well-known existing methods and their challenges.
Supervisedmethods have been stated as an appropriatemodel to classify the comments having
high accuracy and validity but because of relying on tagged training documents, they seek
a very slow and expensive trend. In addition, studies on semi-supervised techniques are
increasing and considering the popularity of micro-blogs such as Twitter, semi-supervised
techniques are very good options for micro-blogs. In this paper, it has been pointed out to the
popularity of clustering and lexicon-based methods among the researchers that have taken
a growing trend. Although the techniques and algorithms used to analyze the comments are
rapidly progressing, many of the issues in this field of study still needs further work and
remains unsolved.
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- A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining and sentiment analysis
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Opinion mining: process, tasks, and applications
2.1 Opinion mining definitions
2.2 Opinion mining procedure
2.3 Opinion mining applications
2.3.1 Opinion mining in the commercial product areas
2.3.2 Opinion mining in the politics area
2.3.3 Opinion mining in the stock market and stock forecast
3 Levels of opinion mining
3.1 Document level
3.2 Sentence level
3.3 Aspect level
3.4 Concept level
4 Aspect extraction
4.1 Extraction based on frequency of noun phrases and nouns
4.2 Extraction based on relation exploitation between opinion words and aspects
4.3 Extraction based on the supervised learning
4.3.1 Extraction based on topic modeling
5 Opinion classification techniques
5.1 Machine learning method
5.1.1 Supervised learning method
5.1.2 Semi-supervised learning
5.1.3 Unsupervised learning (clustering)
5.2 Lexicon-based approach
5.2.1 Dictionary-based approach
5.2.2 Corpus-based approach
5.3 Comparing techniques of sentiment classification
6 Evaluation criteria
7 Future direction
8 Conclusions
References
Assignment – Intro to Data Mining
Review the article by Hemmatian (2019), on classification techniques. In essay format answer the following questions:
1. What were the results of the study?
2. Note what opinion mining is and how it’s used in information retrieval.
3. Discuss the various concepts and techniques of opinion mining and the importance to transforming an organizations NLP framework.
In an APA7 formatted essay answer all questions above. There should be headings to each of the questions above as well. Ensure there are at least two-peer reviewed sources to support your work. The paper should be at least two pages of content (this does not include the cover page or reference page).
Text Book
Title: Introduction to Data Mining
ISBN: 9780133128901
Authors: Pang-Ning Tan, Michael Steinbach, Anuj Karpatne, Vipin Kumar
Publisher: Addison-Wesley
Publication Date: 2013-01-01
Edition: 2nd Edition.
· Hemmatian, H. (2019).
A survey on classification techniques for opinion mining and sentiment analysis
.
Artificial Intelligence Review,
52(3), 1495–1545.
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