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Homework

Article Summary

Instructions: Please
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your responses in the following sections.

I. Thesis

What is the author’s thesis? (i.e., Ultimately, what is the author trying to argue?)

II. Major Points

Provide a summary of the major points the author makes in arguing for his/her thesis.

III. Disagreements, Objections, Worries

Articulate at least one objection, disagreement, or problem you have with the author’s article.

(Note: Don’t let the fact that your disagreement, objection, or worry is not fully developed keep you from raising it. Try to articulate it as best as possible)

IV. Discussion Questions

Provide three questions that have arisen in reaction to the reading.

Why Abortion is Immoral
Don Marquis
Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 86 (April,
1989), pp. 183-202

1 The view that abortion is, with rare exceptions, seriously

immoral has received little support in the recent
philosophical literature. No doubt most philosophers
affiliated with secular institutions of higher education
believe that the anti-abortion position is either a symptom
of irrational religious dogma or a conclusion generated by
seriously confused philosophical argument. The purpose
of this essay is to undermine this general belief. This
essay sets out an argument that purports to show, as well
as any argument in ethics can show, that abortion is,
except possibly in rare cases, seriously immoral, that it is
in the same moral category as killing an innocent adult
human being.

2 The argument is based on a major assumption. Many of
the most insightful and careful writers on the ethics of
abortion—such as Joel Feinberg, Michael Tooley, Mary
Ann Warren, H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr., L.W. Sumner,
John T. Noonan, Jr., and Philip Devine1—believe that
whether or not abortion is morally permissible stands or
falls on whether or not a fetus is the sort of being whose
life it is seriously wrong to end. The argument of this
essay will assume, but not argue, that they are correct.

3 Also, this essay will neglect issues of great importance to
a complete ethics of abortion. Some anti-abortionists will
allow that certain abortions, such as abortion before
implantation or abortion when the life of a woman is
threatened by a pregnancy or abortion after rape, may be
morally permissible. This essay will not explore the
casuistry of these hard cases. The purpose of this essay is
to develop a general argument for the claim that the
overwhelming majority of deliberate abortions are
seriously immoral.


























































1
Feinberg, “Abortion,” in Matters of Life and Death: New
Introductory Essays in Moral Philosophy, Tom Regan, ed. (New
York: Random House, 1986), pp. 256-293: Tooley, “Abortion
and Infanticide,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, Vol. 11, No. I
(1912), pp. 31-65, Tooley, Abortion and Infanticide (New York:
Oxford, 1984); Warren, “On the Moral and Legal Status of
Abortion,” The Monist LVIX, Vol. 1 (1973), p. 4361;
Engelhardt, “The Ontology of Abortion,” Ethics LXXXIV Vol.
3 (19’74), pp. 217-234; Sumner, Abortion and Moral Theory
(Princeton: University Press, l98l); Noonan, “An Almost
Absolute Value in History,” in The Morality of Abortion: Legal
and Historical Perspectives, Noonan, ed. (Cambridge: Harvard,
1970); and Devine, The Ethics of Homicide (Ithaca: Cornell,
1978).


4 1. A sketch of standard anti-abortion and pro-choice
arguments exhibits how those arguments possess certain
symmetries that explain why partisans of those positions
are so convinced of the correctness of their own positions,
why they are not successful in convincing their
opponents, and why, to others, this issue seems to be
unresolvable. An analysis of the nature of this standoff
suggests a strategy for surmounting it.

5 Consider the way a typical anti-abortionist argues. She
will argue or assert that life is present from the moment of
conception or that fetuses look like babies or that fetuses
possess a characteristic such as a genetic code that is both
necessary and sufficient for being human. Anti-
abortionists seem to believe that (1) the truth of all of
these claims is quite obvious, and (2) establishing any of
these claims is sufficient to show that abortion is morally
akin to murder.

6 A standard pro-choice strategy exhibits similarities. The
pro-choicer will argue or assert that fetuses are not
persons or that fetuses are not rational agents or that
fetuses are not social beings. Pro-choicers seem to believe
that (1) the truth of any of these claims is quite obvious,
and (2) establishing any of these claims is sufficient to
show that an abortion is not a wrongful killing.

7 In fact, both the pro-choice and the anti-abortion claims
do seem to be true, although the “it looks like a baby”
claim is more difficult to establish the earlier the
pregnancy. We seem to have a standoff. How can it be
resolved?

8 As everyone who has taken a bit of logic knows, if any of
these arguments concerning abortion is a good argument,
it requires not only some claim characterizing fetuses, but
also some general moral principle that ties a characteristic
of fetuses to having or not having the right to life or to
some other moral characteristic that will generate the
obligation or the lack of obligation not to end the life of a
fetus. Accordingly, the arguments of the anti-abortionist
and the pro-choicer need a bit of filling in to be regarded
as adequate.

9 Note what each partisan will say. The anti-abortionist will
claim that her position is supported by such generally
accepted moral principles as “It is always prima facie
seriously wrong to take a human life” or “It is always
prima facie seriously wrong to end the life of a baby.”
Since these are generally accepted moral principles, her
position is certainly not obviously wrong. The pro-choicer
will claim that her position is supported by such plausible
moral principles as “Being a person is what gives an
individual intrinsic moral worth” or “It is only seriously
prima facie wrong to take the life of a member of the
human community.” Since these are generally accepted
moral principles, the pro-choice position is certainly not
obviously wrong. Unfortunately, we have again arrived at
a standoff.

2 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

10 Now, how might one deal with this standoff? The
standard approach is to try to show how the moral
principles of one’s opponent lose their plausibility under
analysis. It is easy to see how this is possible. On the one
hand, the anti-abortionist will defend a moral principle
concerning the wrongness of killing which tends to be
broad in scope in order that even fetuses at an early stage
of pregnancy will fall under it. The problem with broad
principles is that they often embrace too much. In this
particular instance, the principle “It is always prima facie
wrong to take a human life” seems to entail that it is
wrong to end the existence of a living human cancer-cell
culture, on the grounds that the culture is both living and
human. Therefore, it seems that the anti-abortionist’s
favored principle is too broad.

11 On the other hand, the pro-choicer wants to find a moral
principle concerning the wrongness of killing which tends
to be narrow in scope in order that fetuses will not fall
under it. The problem with narrow principles is that they
often do not embrace enough. Hence, the needed
principles such as “It is prima facie seriously wrong to kill
only persons” or “It is prima facie wrong to kill only
rational agents” do not explain why it is wrong to kill
infants or young children or the severely retarded or even
perhaps the severely mentally ill. Therefore, we seem
again to have a standoff. The anti-abortionist charges, not
unreasonably, that pro-choice principles concerning
killing are too narrow to be acceptable; the pro-choicer
charges, not unreasonably, that anti-abortionist principles
concerning killing are too broad to be acceptable.

12 Attempts by both sides to patch up the difficulties in their
positions run into further difficulties. The anti-abortionist
will try to remove the problem in her position by
reformulating her principle concerning killing in terms of
human beings. Now we end up with: “It is always prima
facie seriously wrong to end the life of a human being.”
This principle has the advantage of avoiding the problem
of the human cancer-cell culture counterexample. But this
advantage is purchased at a high price. For although it is
clear that a fetus is both human and alive, it is not at all
clear that a fetus is a human being. There is at least
something to be said for the view that something becomes
a human being only after a process of development, and
that therefore first trimester fetuses and perhaps all fetuses
are not yet human beings. Hence, the anti-abortionist, by
this move, has merely exchanged one problem for
another.2

13 The pro-choicer fares no better. She may attempt to find
reasons why killing infants, young children, and the
severely retarded is wrong which are independent of her


























































2 For interesting discussions of this issue, see Warren Quinn,
“Abortion: Identity and Loss,” Philosophy and Public Affairs,
Vol. XIII, No. 1 (1984), pp. 24-54; and Lawrence C. Becker,
“Human Being: The Boundaries of the Concept,” Philosophy
and Public Affairs, Vol. IV No. 1 (1915), pp. 334-359.

major principle that is supposed to explain the wrongness
of taking human life, but which will not also make
abortion immoral. This is no easy task. Appeals to social
utility will seem satisfactory only to those who resolve
not to think of the enormous difficulties with a utilitarian
account of the wrongness of killing and the significant
social costs of preserving the lives of the unproductive.3 A
pro-choice strategy that extends the definition of “person”
to infants or even to young children seems just as
arbitrary as an anti-abortion strategy that extends the
definition of “human being” to fetuses. Again, we find
symmetries in the two positions and we arrive at a
standoff. There are even further problems that reflect
symmetries in the two positions. In addition to
counterexample problems, or the arbitrary application
problems that can be exchanged for them, the standard
anti-abortionist principle “It is prima facie seriously
wrong to kill a human being,” or one of its variants, can
be objected to on the grounds of ambiguity. If “human
being” is taken to be a biological category, then the anti-
abortionist is left with the problem of explaining why a
merely biological category should make a moral
difference. Why, it is asked, is it any more reasonable to
base a moral conclusion on the number of chromosomes
in one’s cells than on the color of one’s skin?4 If “human
being,” on the other hand, is taken to be a moral category,
then the claim that a fetus is a human being cannot be
taken to be a premise in the anti-abortion argument, for it
is precisely what needs to be established. Hence, either
the anti-abortionist’s main category is a morally
irrelevant, merely biological category, or it is of no use to
the anti-abortionist in establishing (noncircularly, of
course) that abortion is wrong.

14 Although this problem with the anti-abortionist position is
often noticed, it is less often noticed that the pro-choice
position suffers from an analogous problem. The principle
“Only persons have the right to life” also suffers from an
ambiguity. The term “person” is typically defined in
terms of psychological characteristics, although there will
certainly be disagreement concerning which
characteristics are most important. Supposing that this
matter can be settled, the pro-choicer is left with the
problem of explaining why psychological characteristics
should make a moral difference. If the pro-choicer should
attempt to deal with this problem by claiming that an
explanation is not necessary, that in fact we do treat such
a cluster of psychological properties as having moral
significance, the sharp-witted anti-abortionist should have
a ready response. We do treat being both living and
human as having moral significance. If it is legitimate for


























































3
For example, see my “Ethics and the Elderly: Some
Problems,” in Stuart Spicker, Kathleen Woodward, and David
van Tassel, eds., Aging and the Elderly,: Humanistic
Perspectives in Gerontology (Atlantic Highlands, NJ:
Humanities, 1978), pp. 341-355.

4 See Warren, op. cit., and Tooley, “Abortion and Infanticide.”

3 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

the pro-choicer to demand that the anti-abortionist
provide an explanation of the connection between the
biological character of being a human being and the
wrongness of being killed (even though people accept this
connection), then it is legitimate for the anti-abortionist to
demand that the pro-choicer provide an explanation of the
connection between psychological criteria for being a
person and the wrongness of being killed (even though
that connection is accepted).5

15 Feinberg has attempted to meet this objection (he calls
psychological personhood “commonsense personhood”):

The characteristics that confer commonsense
personhood are not arbitrary bases for rights and
duties, such as race, sex or species membership; rather
they are traits that make sense out of rights and duties
and without which those moral attributes would have
no point or function. It is because people are
conscious; have a sense of their personal identities;
have plans, goals, and projects; experience emotions;
are liable to pains, anxieties, and frustrations; can
reason and bargain, and so on—it is because of these
attributes that people have values and interests, desires
and expectations of their own, including a stake in
their own futures, and a personal well-being of a sort
we cannot ascribe to unconscious or nonrational
beings. Because of their developed capacities they can
assume duties and responsibilities and can have and
make claims on one another. Only because of their
sense of se1f, their life plans, their value hierarchies,
and their stakes in their own futures can they be
ascribed fundamental rights. There is nothing arbitrary
about these linkages. (op. cit., p. 270)

16 The plausible aspects of this attempt should not be taken
to obscure its implausible features. There is a great deal to
be said for the view that being a psychological person
under some description is a necessary condition for
having duties. One cannot have a duty unless one is
capable of behaving morally, and a being’s capability of
behaving morally will require having a certain
psychology. It is far from obvious, however, that having
rights entails consciousness or rationality, as Feinberg
suggests. We speak of the rights of the severely retarded
or the severely mentally ill, yet some of these persons are
not rational. We speak of the rights of the temporarily
unconscious. The New Jersey Supreme Court based their
decision in the Quinlan case on Karen Ann Quinlan’s
right to privacy, and she was known to be permanently
unconscious at that time. Hence, Feinberg’s claim that
having rights entails being conscious is, on its face,
obviously false.

17 Of course, it might not make sense to attribute rights to a
being that would never in its natural history have certain
psychological traits. This modest connection between
psychological personhood and moral personhood will


























































5 This seems to be the fatal flaw in Warren’s treatment of this
issue.

create a place for Karen Ann Quinlan and the temporarily
unconscious. But then it makes a place for fetuses also.
Hence, it does not serve Feinberg’s pro-choice purposes.
Accordingly, it seems that the pro-choicer will have as
much difficulty bridging the gap between psychological
personhood and personhood in the moral sense as the
anti-abortionist has bridging the gap between being a
biological human being and being a human being in the
moral sense.

18 Furthermore, the pro-choicer cannot any more escape her
problem by making person a purely moral category than
the anti-abortionist could escape by the analogous move.
For if person is a moral category, then the pro-choicer is
left without the resources for establishing (noncircularly,
of course) the claim that a fetus is not a person, which is
an essential premise in her argument. Again, we have
both a symmetry and a standoff between pro-choice and
antiabortion views.

19 Passions in the abortion debate run high. There are both
plausibilities and difficulties with the standard positions.
Accordingly, it is hardly surprising that partisans of either
side embrace with fervor the moral generalizations that
support the conclusions they preanalytically favor, and
reject with disdain the moral generalizations of their
opponents as being subject to inescapable difficulties. It is
easy to believe that the counterexamples to one’s own
moral principles are merely temporary difficulties that
will dissolve in the wake of further philosophical
research, and that the counterexamples to the principles of
one’s opponents are as straightforward as the
contradiction between A and O propositions in traditional
logic. This might suggest to an impartial observer (if there
are any) that the abortion issue is unresolvable.

20 There is a way out of this apparent dialectical quandary.
The moral generalizations of both sides are not quite
correct. The generalizations hold for the most part, for the
usual cases. This suggests that they are all accidental
generalizations, that the moral claims made by those on
both sides of the dispute do not touch on the essence of
the matter.

21 This use of the distinction between essence and accident
is not meant to invoke obscure metaphysical categories.
Rather, it is intended to reflect the rather atheoretical
nature of the abortion discussion. If the generalization a
partisan in the abortion dispute adopts were derived from
the reason why ending the life of a human being is wrong,
then there could not be exceptions to that generalization
unless some special case obtains in which there are even
more powerful countervailing reasons. Such
generalizations would not be merely accidental
generalizations; they would point to, or be based upon,
the essence of the wrongness of killing, what it is that
makes killing wrong. All this suggests that a necessary
condition of resolving the abortion controversy is a more
theoretical account of the wrongness of killing. After all,

4 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

if we merely believe, but do not understand, why killing
adult human beings such as ourselves is wrong, how
could we conceivably show that abortion is either
immoral or permissible?

22 2. In order to develop such an account, we can start from

the following unproblematic assumption concerning our
own case: it is wrong to kill us. Why is it wrong? Some
answers can be easily eliminated. It might be said that
what makes killing us wrong is that a killing brutalizes the
one who kills. But the brutalization consists of being
inured to the performance of an act that is hideously
immoral; hence, the brutalization does not explain the
immorality. It might be said that what makes killing us
wrong is the great loss others would experience due to our
absence. Although such hubris is understandable, such an
explanation does not account for the wrongness of killing
hermits, or those whose lives are relatively independent
and whose friends find it easy to make new friends.

23 A more obvious answer is better. What primarily makes
killing wrong is neither its effect on the murderer nor its
effect on the victim’s friends and relatives, but its effect
on the victim. The loss of one’s life is one of the greatest
losses one can suffer. The loss of one’s life deprives one
of all the experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments
which would otherwise have constituted one’s future.
Therefore, killing someone is wrong, primarily because
the killing inflicts (one of) the greatest possible losses on
the victim. To describe this as the loss of life can be
misleading, however. The change in my biological state
does not by itself make killing me wrong. The effect of
the loss of my biological life is the loss to me of all those
activities, projects, experiences, and enjoyments which
would otherwise have constituted my future personal life.
These activities, projects, experiences, and enjoyments
are either valuable for their own sakes or are means to
something else that is valuable for its own sake. Some
parts of my future are not valued by me now, but will
come to be valued by me as I grow older and as my
values and capacities change. When I am killed, I am
deprived both of what I now value which would have
been part of my future personal life, but also what I would
come to value. Therefore, when I die, I am deprived of all
of the value of my future. Inflicting this loss on me is
ultimately what makes killing me wrong. This being the
case, it would seem that what makes killing any adult
human being prima facie seriously wrong is the loss of his
other future.6

24 How should this rudimentary theory of the wrongness of
killing be evaluated? It cannot be faulted for deriving an


























































6 I have been most influenced on this matter by Jonathan Glover,
Causing Death and Saving Lives (New York: Penguin, 1977),
ch. 3; and Robert Young, “What Is So Wrong with Killing
People?” Philosophy, Vol. LIV, No. 210 (1979), pp. 515-528.

“ought” from an “is,” for it does not. The analysis
assumes that killing me (or you, reader) is prima facie
seriously wrong. The point of the analysis is to establish
which natural property ultimately explains the wrongness
of the killing, given that it is wrong. A natural property
will ultimately explain the wrongness of killing, only if
(1) the explanation fits with our intuitions about the
matter and (2) there is no other natural property that
provides the basis for a better explanation of the
wrongness of killing. This analysis rests on the intuition
that what makes killing a particular human or animal
wrong is what it does to that particular human or animal.
What makes killing wrong is some natural effect or other
of the killing. Some would deny this. For instance, a
divine-command theorist in ethics would deny it. Surely
this denial is, however, one of those features of divine
command theory which renders it so implausible.

25 The claim that what makes killing wrong is the loss of the
victim’s future is directly supported by two
considerations. In the first place, this theory explains why
we regard killing as one of the worst of crimes. Killing is
especially wrong, because it deprives the victim of more
than perhaps any other crime. In the second place, people
with AIDS or cancer who know they are dying believe, of
course, that dying is a very bad thing for them. They
believe that the loss of a future to them that they would
otherwise have experienced is what makes their
premature death a very bad thing for them. A better
theory of the wrongness of killing would require a
different natural property associated with killing which
better fits with the attitudes of the dying. What could it
be?

26 The view that what makes killing wrong is the loss to the
victim of the value of the victim’s future gains additional
support when some of its implications are examined. In
the first place, it is incompatible with the view that it is
wrong to kill only beings who are biologically human. It
is possible that there exists a different species from
another planet whose members have a future like ours.
Since having a future like that is what makes killing
someone wrong, this theory entails that it would be wrong
to kill members of such a species. Hence, this theory is
opposed to the claim that only life that is biologically
human has great moral worth, a claim which many anti-
abortionists have seemed to adopt. This opposition, which
this theory has in common with personhood theories,
seems to be a merit of the theory.

27 In the second place, the claim that the loss of one’s future
is the wrong-making feature of one’s being killed entails
the possibility that the futures of some actual nonhuman
mammals on our own planet are sufficiently like ours and
it is seriously wrong to kill them also. Whether some
animals do have the same right to life as human beings
depends on adding to the account of the wrongness of
killing some additional account of just what it is about my
future or the futures of other adult human beings which

5 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

makes it wrong to kill us. No such additional account will
be offered in this essay. Undoubtedly, the provision of
such an account would be a very difficult matter.
Undoubtedly, any such account would be quite
controversial. Hence, it surely should not reflect badly on
this sketch of an elementary theory of the wrongness of
killing that it is indeterminate with respect to some very
difficult issues regarding animal rights.

28 In the third place, the claim that the loss of one’s future is
the wrong-making feature of one’s being killed does not
entail, as sanctity of human life theories do, that active
euthanasia is wrong. Persons who are severely and
incurably ill, who face a future of pain and despair, and
who wish to die will not have suffered a loss if they are
killed. It is, strictly speaking, the value of a human’s
future which makes killing wrong in this theory. This
being so, killing does not necessarily wrong some persons
who are sick and dying. Of course, there may be other
reasons for a prohibition of active euthanasia, but that is
another matter. Sanctity-of-human-life theories seem to
hold that active euthanasia is seriously wrong even in an
individual case where there seems to be good reason for it
independently of public policy considerations. This
consequence is most implausible, and it is a plus for the
claim that the loss of a future of value is what makes
killing wrong that it does not share this consequence.

29 In the fourth place, the account of the wrongness of
killing defended in this essay does straightforwardly
entail that it is prima facie seriously wrong to kill children
and infants, for we do presume that they have futures of
value. Since we do believe that it is wrong to kill
defenseless little babies, it is important that a theory of the
wrongness of killing easily account for this. Personhood
theories of the wrongness of killing, on the other hand,
cannot straightforwardly account for the wrongness of
killing infants and young children.7 Hence, such theories
must add special ad hoc accounts of the wrongness of
killing the young. The plausibility of such ad hoc theories
seems to be a function of how desperately one wants such
theories to work. The claim that the primary wrong-
making feature of a killing is the loss to the victim of the
value of its future accounts for the wrongness of killing
young children and infants directly; it makes the
wrongness of such acts as obvious as we actually think it
is. This is a further merit of this theory. Accordingly, it
seems that this value of a future-like-ours theory of the
wrongness of killing shares strengths of both sanctity-of-
life and personhood accounts while avoiding weaknesses
of both. In addition, it meshes with a central intuition
concerning what makes killing wrong.

30 The claim that the primary wrong-making feature of a
killing is the loss to the victim of the value of its future
has obvious consequences for the ethics of abortion. The

























































7 Feinberg, Tooley, Warren, and Engelhardt have all dealt with
this problem.

future of a standard fetus includes a set of experiences,
projects, activities, and such which are identical with the
futures of adult human beings and are identical with the
futures of young children. Since the reason that is
sufficient to explain why it is wrong to kill human beings
after the time of birth is a reason that also applies to
fetuses, it follows that abortion is prima facie seriously
morally wrong.

31 This argument does not rely on the invalid inference that,
since it is wrong to kill persons, it is wrong to kill
potential persons also. The category that is morally
central to this analysis is the category of having a valuable
future like ours; it is not the category of personhood. The
argument to the conclusion that abortion is prima facie
seriously morally wrong proceeded independently of the
notion of person or potential person or any equivalent.
Someone may wish to start with this analysis in terms of
the value of a human future, conclude that abortion is,
except perhaps in rare circumstances, seriously morally
wrong, infer that fetuses have the right to life, and then
call fetuses “persons” as a result of their having the right
to life. Clearly, in this case, the category of person is
being used to state the conclusion of the analysis rather
than to generate the argument of the analysis.

32 The structure of this anti-abortion argument can be both
illuminated and defended by comparing it to what appears
to be the best argument for the wrongness of the wanton
infliction of pain on animals. This latter argument is based
on the assumption that it is prima facie wrong to inflict
pain on me (or you, reader). What is the natural property
associated with the infliction of pain which makes such
infliction wrong? The obvious answer seems to be that the
infliction of pain causes suffering and that suffering is a
misfortune. The suffering caused by the infliction of pain
is what makes the wanton infliction of pain on me wrong.
The wanton infliction of pain on other adult humans
causes suffering. The wanton infliction of pain on animals
causes suffering. Since causing suffering is what makes
the wanton infliction of pain wrong and since the wanton
infliction of pain on animals causes suffering, it follows
that the wanton infliction of pain on animals is wrong’

33 This argument for the wrongness of the wanton infliction
of pain on animals shares a number of structural features
with the argument for the serious prima facie wrongness
of abortion. Both arguments start with an obvious
assumption concerning what it is wrong to do to me (or
you, reader). Both then look for the characteristic or the
consequence of the wrong action which makes the action
wrong. Both recognize that the wrong-making feature of
these immoral actions is a property of actions sometimes
directed at individuals other than postnatal human beings.
If the structure of the argument for the wrongness of the
wanton infliction of pain on animals is sound, then the
structure of the argument for the prima facie serious
wrongness of abortion is also sound, for the structure of
the two arguments is the same. The structure common to

6 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

both is the key to the explanation of how the wrongness
of abortion can be demonstrated without recourse to the
category of person. In neither argument is that category
crucial.

34 This defense of an argument for the wrongness of
abortion in terms of a structurally similar argument for the
wrongness of the wanton infliction of pain on animals
succeeds only if the account regarding animals is the
correct account. Is it? In the first place, it seems plausible.
In the second place, its major competition is Kant’s
account. Kant believed that we do not have direct duties
to animals at all, because they are not persons. Hence,
Kant had to explain and justify the wrongness of inflicting
pain on animals on the grounds that “he who is hard in his
dealings with animals becomes hard also in his dealing
with men.”8 The problem with Kant’s account is that there
seems to be no reason for accepting this latter claim
unless Kant’s account is rejected. If the alternative to
Kant’s account is accepted, then it is easy to understand
why someone who is indifferent to inflicting pain on
animals is also indifferent to inflicting pain on humans,
for one is indifferent to what makes inflicting pain wrong
in both cases. But, if Kant’s account is accepted, there is
no intelligible reason why one who is hard in his dealings
with animals (or crabgrass or stones) should also be hard
in his dealings with men. After all, men are persons:
animals are no more persons than crabgrass or stones.
Persons are Kant’s crucial moral category. Why, in short,
should a Kantian accept the basic claim in Kant’s
argument?

35 Hence, Kant’s argument for the wrongness of inflicting
pain on animals rests on a claim that, in a world of
Kantian moral agents, is demonstrably false. Therefore,
the alternative analysis, being more plausible anyway,
should be accepted. Since this alternative analysis has the
same structure as the anti-abortion argument being
defended here, we have further support for the argument
for the immorality of abortion being defended in this
essay.

36 Of course, this value of a future-like-ours argument, if
sound, shows only that abortion is prima facie wrong, not
that it is wrong in any and all circumstances. Since the
loss of the future to a standard fetus, if killed, is, however,
at least as great a loss as the loss of the future to a
standard adult human being who is killed, abortion, like
ordinary killing, could be justified only by the most
compelling reasons. The loss of one’s life is almost the
greatest misfortune that can happen to one” Presumably
abortion could be justified in some circumstances, only if
the loss consequent on failing to abort would be at least as
great. Accordingly, morally permissible abortions will be
rare indeed unless, perhaps, they occur so early in


























































8 “Duties to Animals and Spirits,” in Lectures on Ethics, Louis
Infeld, trans. (New York: Harper,
1963), p. 239.

pregnancy that a fetus is not yet definitely an individual.
Hence, this argument should be taken as showing that
abortion is presumptively very seriously wrong, where the
presumption is very strong—as strong as the presumption
that kilting another adult human being is wrong.

37 3. How complete an account of the wrongness of killing

does the value of a future-like-ours account have to be in
order that the wrongness of abortion is a consequence?
This account does not have to be an account of the
necessary conditions for the wrongness of killing. Some
persons in nursing homes may lack valuable human
futures, yet it may be wrong to kill them for other reasons.
Furthermore, this account does not obviously have to be
the sole reason killing is wrong where the victim did have
a valuable future. This analysis claims only that, for any
killing where the victim did have a valuable future like
ours, having that future by itself is sufficient to create the
strong presumption that the killing is seriously wrong.

38 One way to overturn the value of a future-like-ours
argument would be to find some account of the
wrongness of killing which is at least as intelligible and
which has different implications for the ethics of abortion.
Two rival accounts possess at least some degree of
plausibility. One account is based on the obvious fact that
people value the experience of living and wish for that
valuable experience to continue. Therefore, it might be
said, what makes killing wrong is the discontinuation of
that experience for the victim. Let us call this the
discontinuation account.9 Another rival account is based
upon the obvious fact that people strongly desire to
continue to live. This suggests that what makes killing us
so wrong is that it interferes with the fulfillment of a
strong and fundamental desire, the fulfillment of which is
necessary for the fulfillment of any other desires we
might have. Let us call this the desire account.10

39 Consider first the desire account as a rival account of the
ethics of killing which would provide the basis for
rejecting the anti-abortion position. Such an account will
have to be stronger than the value of a future-like-ours
account of the wrongness of abortion if it is to do the job
expected of it. To entail the wrongness of abortion, the
value of a future-like-ours account has only to provide a
sufficient, but not a necessary, condition for the
wrongness of killing. The desire account, on the other
hand, must provide us also with a necessary condition for
the wrongness of killing in order to generate a pro-choice
conclusion on abortion. The reason for this is that
presumably the argument from the desire account moves
from the claim that what makes killing wrong is

























































9 I am indebted to Jack Bricke for raising this objection.
10 Presumably a preference utilitarian would press such an
objection. Tooley once suggested that his account has such a
theoretical underpinning. See his “Abortion and Infanticide,” pp.
44/5.

7 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

interference with a very strong desire to the claim that
abortion is not wrong because the fetus lacks a strong
desire to live. Obviously, this inference fails if someone’s
having the desire to live is not a necessary condition of its
being wrong to kill that individual.

40 One problem with the desire account is that we do regard
it as seriously wrong to kill persons who have little desire
to live or who have no desire to live or, indeed, have a
desire not to live. We believe it is seriously wrong to kill
the unconscious, the sleeping, those who are tired of life,
and those who are suicidal. The value-of-a-human-future
account renders standard morality intelligible in these
cases; these cases appear to be incompatible with the
desire account. The desire account is subject to a deeper
difficulty. We desire life, because we value the goods of
this life. The goodness of life is not secondary to our
desire for it. If this were not so, the pain of one’s own
premature death could be done away with merely by an
appropriate alteration in the configuration of one’s
desires. This is absurd. Hence, it would seem that it is the
loss of the goods of one’s future, not the interference with
the fulfillment of a strong desire to live, which accounts
ultimately for the wrongness of killing.

41 It is worth noting that, if the desire account is modified so
that it does not provide a necessary, but only a sufficient,
condition for the wrongness of killing, the desire account
is compatible with the value of a future-like-ours account.
The combined accounts will yield an anti-abortion ethic.
This suggests that one can retain what is intuitively
plausible about the desire account without a challenge to
the basic argument of this paper.

42 It is also worth noting that, if future desires have moral
force in a modified desire account of the wrongness of
killing, one can find support for an anti-abortion ethic
even in the absence of a value of a future-like-ours
account. If one decides that a morally relevant property,
the possession of which is sufficient to make it wrong to
kill some individual, is the desire at some future time to
live—one might decide to justify one’s refusal to kill
suicidal teenagers on these grounds, for example—then,
since typical fetuses will have the desire in the future to
live, it is wrong to kill typical fetuses. Accordingly, it
does not seem that a desire account of the wrongness of
killing can provide a justification of a pro-choice ethic of
abortion which is nearly as adequate as the value of a
human-future justification of an anti-abortion ethic.

43 The discontinuation account looks more promising as an
account of the wrongness of killing. It seems just as
intelligible as the value of a future-like-ours account, but
it does not justify an anti-abortion position. Obviously, if
it is the continuation of one’s activities, experiences, and
projects, the loss of which makes killing wrong, then it is
not wrong to kill fetuses for that reason, for fetuses do not
have experiences, activities, and projects to be continued
or discontinued. Accordingly, the discontinuation account

does not have the anti-abortion consequences that the
value of a future-like-ours account has. Yet, it seems as
intelligible as the value of a future-like-ours account, for
when we think of what would be wrong with our being
killed, it does seem as if it is the discontinuation of what
makes our lives worthwhile which makes killing us
wrong.

44 Is the discontinuation account just as good an account as
the value of a future-like-ours account? The
discontinuation account will not be adequate at all, if it
does not refer to the value of the experience that may be
discontinued. One does not want the discontinuation
account to make it wrong to kill a patient who begs for
death and who is in severe pain that cannot be relieved
short of killing. (I leave open the question of whether it is
wrong for other reasons.) Accordingly, the
discontinuation account must be more than a bare
discontinuation account. It must make some reference to
the positive value of the patient’s experiences. But, by the
same token, the value of a future-like-ours account cannot
be a bare future account either. Just having a future surely
does not itself rule out killing the above patient. This
account must make some reference to the value of the
patient’s future experiences and projects also. Hence, both
accounts involve the value of experiences, projects, and
activities. So far we still have symmetry between the
accounts.

45 The symmetry fades, however, when we focus on the time
period of the value of the experiences, etc., which has
moral consequences. Although both accounts leave open
the possibility that the patient in our example may be
killed, this possibility is left open only in virtue of the
utterly bleak future for the patient. It makes no difference
whether the patient’s immediate past contains intolerable
pain, or consists in being in a coma (which we can
imagine is a situation of indifference), or consists in a life
of value. If the patient’s future is a future of value, we
want our account to make it wrong to kill the patient. If
the patient’s future is intolerable, whatever his or her
immediate past, we want our account to allow killing the
patient. Obviously, then, it is the value of that patient’s
future which is doing the work in rendering the morality
of killing the patient intelligible.

46 This being the case, it seems clear that whether one has
immediate past experiences or not does no work in the
explanation of what makes killing wrong. The addition
the discontinuation account makes to the value of a
human future account is otiose. Its addition to the value-
of-a-future account plays no role at all in rendering
intelligible the wrongness of killing. Therefore, it can be
discarded with the discontinuation account of which it is a
part.

47 4. The analysis of the previous section suggests that

alternative general accounts of the wrongness of killing

8 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

are either inadequate or unsuccessful in getting around the
anti-abortion consequences of the value of a future-like-
ours argument. A different strategy for avoiding these
anti-abortion consequences involves limiting the scope of
the value of a future argument. More precisely, the
strategy involves arguing that fetuses lack a property that
is essential for the value-of-a-future argument (or for any
anti-abortion argument) to apply to them.

48 One move of this sort is based upon the claim that a
necessary condition of one’s future being valuable is that
one values it. Value implies a valuer. Given this one
might argue that, since fetuses cannot value their futures,
their futures are not valuable to them. Hence, it does not
seriously wrong them deliberately to end their lives.

49 This move fails, however, because of some ambiguities.
Let us assume that something cannot be of value unless it
is valued by someone. This does not entail that my life is
of no value unless it is valued by me. I may think, in a
period of despair, that my future is of no worth
whatsoever, but I may be wrong because others rightly
see value—even great value—in it. Furthermore, my
future can be valuable to me even if I do not value it. This
is the case when a young person attempts suicide, but is
rescued and goes on to significant human achievements.
Such young people’s futures are ultimately valuable to
them, even though such futures do not seem to be
valuable to them at the moment of attempted suicide. A
fetus’s future can be valuable to it in the same way.
Accordingly, this attempt to limit the anti-abortion
argument fails.

50 Another similar attempt to reject the anti-abortion
position is based on Tooley’s claim that an entity cannot
possess the right to life unless it has the capacity to desire
its continued existence. It follows that, since fetuses lack
the conceptual capacity to desire to continue to live, they
lack the right to life. Accordingly, Tooley concludes that
abortion cannot be seriously prima facie wrong (op. cit.,
pp. 46/7).

51 What could be the evidence for Tooley’s basic claim?
Tooley once argued that individuals have a prima facie
right to what they desire and that the lack of the capacity
to desire something undercuts the basis of one’s right to it
(op. cit., pp. 44/5). This argument plainly will not succeed
in the context of the analysis of this essay, however, since
the point here is to establish the fetus’s right to life on
other grounds. Tooley’s argument assumes that the right
to life cannot be established in general on some basis
other than the desire for life. This position was considered
and rejected in the preceding section of this paper.

52 One might attempt to defend Tooley’s basic claim on the
grounds that, because a fetus cannot apprehend continued
life as a benefit, its continued life cannot be a benefit or
cannot be something it has a right to or cannot be
something that is in its interest. This might be defended in
terms of the general proposition that, if an individual is

literally incapable of caring about or taking an interest in
some X, then one does not have a right to X or X is not a
benefit or X is not something that is in one’s interest.11

53 Each member of this family of claims seems to be open to
objections. As John C. Stevens12 has pointed out, one may
have a right to be treated with a certain medical procedure
(because of a health insurance policy one has purchased),
even though one cannot conceive of the nature of the
procedure. And, as Tooley himself has pointed out,
persons who have been indoctrinated, or drugged, or
rendered temporarily unconscious may be literally
incapable of caring about or taking an interest in
something that is in their interest or is something to which
they have a right, or is something that benefits them.
Hence, the Tooley claim that would restrict the scope of
the value of a future-like-ours argument is undermined by
counterexamples.13

54 Finally, Paul Bassen14 has argued that, even though the
prospects of an embryo might seem to be a basis for the
wrongness of abortion, an embryo cannot be a victim and
therefore cannot be wronged. An embryo cannot be a
victim, he says, because it lacks sentience. His central
argument for this seems to be that, even though plants and
the permanently unconscious are alive, they clearly
cannot be victims. What is the explanation of this? Bassen
claims that the explanation is that their lives consist of
mere metabolism and mere metabolism is not enough to
ground victimizability. Mentation is required.

55 The problem with this attempt to establish the absence of
victimizability is that both plants and the permanently
unconscious clearly lack what Bassen calls “prospects” or
what I have called “a future life like ours.” Hence, it is
surely open to one to argue that the real reason we believe
plants and the permanently unconscious cannot be victims
is that killing them cannot deprive them of a future life
like ours; the real reason is not their absence of present
mentation.

56 Bassen recognizes that his view is subject to this
difficulty, and he recognizes that the case of children
seems to support this difficulty, for “much of what we do
for children is based on prospects.” He argues, however,
that, in the case of children and in other such cases,
“potentiality comes into play only where victimizability
has been secured on other grounds” (ibid., p. 333).

57 Bassen’s defense of his view is patently question-begging,
since what is adequate to secure victimizability is exactly


























































11 Donald VanDeVeer seems to think this is self-evident. See his
“Whither Baby Doe?” in Matters of Life and Death, p. 233.
12 “Must the Bearer of a Right Have the Concept of That to
Which He Has a Right?” Ethics, XCV, 1 (1984): 68-74.
13 See Tooley again in “Abortion and Infanticide,” pp. 47-49.
14 “Present Sakes and Future Prospects: The Status of Early
Abortion,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, XI, 4 (1982): 322-
326.

9 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

what is at issue. His examples do not support his own
view against the thesis of this essay. Of course, embryos
can be victims: when their lives are deliberately
terminated, they are deprived of their futures of value,
their prospects. This makes them victims, for it directly
wrongs them.

58 The seeming plausibility of Bassen’s view stems from the
fact that paradigmatic cases of imagining someone as a
victim involve empathy, and empathy requires mentation
of the victim. The victims of flood, famine, rape, or child
abuse are all persons with whom we can empathize. That
empathy seems to be part of seeing them as victims.15

59 In spite of the strength of these examples, the attractive
intuition that a situation in which there is victimization
requires the possibility of empathy is subject to
counterexamples. Consider a case that Bassen himself
offers: “Posthumous obliteration of an author’s work
constitutes a misfortune for him only if he had wished his
work to endure” (op cit., p. 318). The conditions Bassen
wishes to impose upon the possibility of being victimized
here seem far too strong. Perhaps this author, due to his
unrealistic standards of excellence and his low self-
esteem, regarded his work as unworthy of survival, even
though it possessed genuine literary merit. Destruction of
such work would surely victimize its author. In such a
case, empathy with the victim concerning the loss is
clearly impossible.

60 Of course, Bassen does not make the possibility of
empathy a necessary condition of victimizability; he
requires only mentation. Hence, on Bassen’s actual view,
this author, as I have described him, can be a victim. The
problem is that the basic intuition that renders Bassen’s
view plausible is missing in the author’s case. In order to
attempt to avoid counterexamples, Bassen has made his
thesis too weak to be supported by the intuitions that
suggested it.

61 Even so, the mentation requirement on victimizability is
still subject to counterexamples. Suppose a severe
accident renders me totally unconscious for a month, after
which I recover. Surely killing me while I am
unconscious victimizes me, even though I am incapable
of mentation during that time. It follows that Bassen’s
thesis fails. Apparently, attempts to restrict the value of a
future-like-ours argument so that fetuses do not fall within
its scope do not succeed.

62 5. In this essay, it has been argued that the correct ethic of

the wrongness of killing can be extended to fetal life and
used to show that there is a strong presumption that any
abortion is morally impermissible. If the ethic of killing
adopted here entails, however, that contraception is also


























































15 Note carefully the reasons he gives on the bottom of p. 316.

seriously immoral, then there would appear to be a
difficulty with the analysis of this essay.

63 But this analysis does not entail that contraception is
wrong. Of course, contraception prevents the actualization
of a possible future of value. Hence, it follows from the
claim that futures of value should be maximized that
contraception is prima facie immoral. This obligation to
maximize does not exist, however; furthermore, nothing
in the ethics of killing in this paper entails that it does.
The ethics of killing in this essay would entail that
contraception is wrong only if something were denied a
human future of value by contraception. Nothing at all is
denied such a future by contraception, however.

64 Candidates for a subject of harm by contraception fall into
four categories: (1) some sperm or other, (2) some ovum
or other, (3) a sperm and an ovum separately, and (4) a
sperm and an ovum together. Assigning the harm to some
sperm is utterly arbitrary, for no reason can be given for
making a sperm the subject of harm rather than an ovum.
Assigning the harm to some ovum is utterly arbitrary, for
no reason can be given for making an ovum the subject of
harm rather than a sperm. One might attempt to avoid
these problems by insisting that contraception deprives
both the sperm and the ovum separately of a valuable
future like ours. On this alternative, too many futures are
lost. Contraception was supposed to be wrong, because it
deprived us of one future of value, not two. One might
attempt to avoid this problem by holding that
contraception deprives the combination of sperm and
ovum of a valuable future like ours. But here the definite
article misleads. At the time of contraception, there are
hundreds of millions of sperm, one (released) ovum and
millions of possible combinations of all of these. There is
no actual combination at all. Is the subject of the loss to
be a merely possible combination? Which one? This
alternative does not yield an actual subject of harm either.
Accordingly, the immorality of contraception is not
entailed by the loss of a future-like-ours argument simply
because there is no nonarbitrarily identifiable subject of
the loss in the case of contraception.

65 6. The purpose of this essay has been to set out an
argument for the serious presumptive wrongness of
abortion subject to the assumption that the moral
permissibility of abortion stands or falls on the moral
status of the fetus. Since a fetus possesses a property, the
possession of which in adult human beings is sufficient to
make killing an adult human being wrong, abortion is
wrong. This way of dealing with the problem of abortion
seems superior to other approaches to the ethics of
abortion, because it rests on an ethics of killing which is
close to self-evident, because the crucial morally relevant
property clearly applies to fetuses, and because the
argument avoids the usual equivocations on ‘human life’,
‘human being’, or ‘person’. The argument rests neither on

10 / Marquis / “Why Abortion is Immoral”

religious claims nor on Papal dogma. It is not subject to
the objection of “speciesism.” Its soundness is compatible
with the moral permissibility of euthanasia and
contraception. It deals with our intuitions concerning
young children.

66 Finally, this analysis can be viewed as resolving a
standard problem—indeed, the standard problem—
concerning the ethics of abortion. Clearly, it is wrong to
kill adult human beings. Clearly, it is not wrong to end the
life of some arbitrarily chosen single human cell. Fetuses
seem to be like arbitrarily chosen human cells in some
respects and like adult humans in other respects. The
problem of the ethics of abortion is the problem of
determining the fetal property that settles this moral
controversy. The thesis of this essay is that the problem of
the ethics of abortion, so understood, is solvable.