ganization. New York, NY: Free Press.
CHAPTER TWO OPEN VERSUS
CLOSED SYSTEMS
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, students should
be able to do the following:
De�ne closed-system models: scienti�c man‐
agement, administrative management, and
bureaucratic management
De�ne open-system models: total quality man‐
agement model and supply chain/synergy
model
Describe how the environment is changing
and the need for a learning organization
Explain how the criminal justice system can
become a learning organization
Organization design and management practices have
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g g
Explain how the criminal justice system can
become a learning organization
Organization design and management practices have
transformed over time in response to changes in society.
New organizations emerge when fresh needs are discov‐
ered or new technologies are available. Alternatively, or‐
ganizations die or are transformed when the needs satis‐
�ed by them no longer exist or have been replaced by
other needs (Katz & Kahn, 1966; Mitro�, Mason, &
Pearson, 1994). Organizational theory is a way to examine
and analyze organizations more precisely and intensely
based on patterns and trends in organizational design
and behavior, which otherwise may not have been done
(Daft, 2015). The purpose of this chapter is to explore the
nature of organizations and organizational theory.
Scholars have provided various models to characterize
organizations to view them more scienti�cally. The cen‐
tral management objective addressed in these models is
the e�cient running of the organization. These models
become the basis for explanations of organizational
events, and they can be broadly classi�ed as closed sys‐
tems or open systems depending on their starting pre‐
sumption (Thompson, 1967). The closed-system models
tend to focus on internal events when explaining organi‐
zational actions and behavior, while open-system models
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and examine the work of bricklayers; he then restruc‐
tured the tasks in a way that reduced the number of mo‐
tions from 18 to 5, resulting in a 200% productivity in‐
crease (Lewis, Goodman, & Fandt, 2001). Lillian Gilbreth
focused on the human aspects of industrial engineering
for improving e�ciency and productivity. She favored
standard days, safer working conditions, scheduled lunch
breaks and rest periods, and abolition of child labor.
Contemporary industrial engineers still use time and mo‐
tion studies and the principles of scienti�c management
to design jobs for greatest e�ciency. These methods are
also employed in sports. Coaches take their players
through hours of videotapes along with commentary on
how to perform an action correctly with the least
amount of energy and maximum e�ect. The positions
the players are recruited to play have been carefully
matched to individual strengths. In law enforcement, the
principles of scienti�c management are greatly empha‐
sized when designing physical strength–building rou‐
tines and in training o�cers to deal with uncooperative
and dangerous o�enders. Hours of videotapes and
hands-on training are used to train law enforcement o�‐
cers in physically handling uncooperative o�enders and
in the use of force. Every move is carefully planned and
simulated by law enforcement o�cers using task perfor‐
mance and the principles of time and motion studies.
Although the traditional model of organizational design
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become the basis for explanations of organizational
events, and they can be broadly classi�ed as closed sys‐
tems or open systems depending on their starting pre‐
sumption (Thompson, 1967). The closed-system models
tend to focus on internal events when explaining organi‐
zational actions and behavior, while open-system models
focus on events occurring externally to the organization
that in�uence changes within the organization. A systems
view considers an organization as a set of interacting
functions that acquire inputs from the environment,
process them, and then release the outputs back to the
external environment (Daft, 2015). At the outset, it needs
to be clari�ed that the words model and theory will be
used interchangeably in this chapter, though at a more
subtle level it could be argued that they have �ne di�er‐
ences in their implications.
The rest of the chapter is loosely divided into three sec‐
tions. The �rst provides a discussion on the closed-sys‐
tem models, where the three main sub�elds of the classi‐
cal perspective are presented—namely, scienti�c man‐
agement, administrative management, and bureaucratic
management. Within each sub�eld, the advantages and
disadvantages in managing the criminal justice system
are examined. In the second section, the open-system
models are reported, where the humanistic and behav‐
ioral perspectives are introduced. This section provides a
discussion on the total quality management model and
the supply chain/synergy model which introduces a new58% of sample
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g
cers in physically handling uncooperative o�enders and
in the use of force. Every move is carefully planned and
simulated by law enforcement o�cers using task perfor‐
mance and the principles of time and motion studies.
Although the traditional model of organizational design
for the various departments in criminal justice derive
from changes made during the Industrial Revolution
(Batts, Smoot, & Scrivner, 2012), these departments
sometimes fail in correctly applying the scienti�c man‐
agement principles in administration. Supervisors are
considered an authority in their area of pro�ciency; how‐
ever, in policing for example, they are often also consid‐
ered an authority in other areas where they may not have
experience. Such an attitude of presumed expertise by
the supervisor is a growing problem, as the �eld of crimi‐
nal justice is becoming more specialized and complex. In
line with the argument presented by Taylor (1911), rising
specialization can be better handled by requiring several
di�erent supervisors to work as a team. The team mem‐
bers may have separate responsibilities for planning,
training, and so forth in their areas of expertise, which
will result in better preparedness of the o�cers being su‐
pervised thus improving the quality of service.
The strongest criticism that comes against scienti�c
management involves the treatment of the worker as a
machine. It is hard to imagine that workers, who have
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g , g
disadvantages in managing the criminal justice system
are examined. In the second section, the open-system
models are reported, where the humanistic and behav‐
ioral perspectives are introduced. This section provides a
discussion on the total quality management model and
the supply chain/synergy model, which introduces a new
concept of including the customer’s perspective in de‐
signing open systems. Within each model, the advan‐
tages and disadvantages in managing the criminal justice
system are examined. The third section examines the
changing face of the criminal justice system, making a
strong argument for building learning organizations.
Such organizations, which are more e�ective and better
suited to the criminal justice system, can only be devel‐
oped on the foundations of an open system.
Close
d-System Models: The Classical
Perspective
Closed-system models consider external environment in‐
�uences (described in detail in Chapter 4) to be stable and
predictable, and they assume that they do not intervene
in or cause problems for the functioning of an organiza‐
tion. Therefore, the closed-system models do not depend
on the external environment for explanations or solu‐
tions to managerial issues; instead, they are enclosed and
sealed o� from the outside world (Daft, 2015). These
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will result in better preparedness of the o�cers being su‐
pervised thus improving the quality of service.
The strongest criticism that comes against scienti�c
management involves the treatment of the worker as a
machine. It is hard to imagine that workers, who have
emotions, unlike machines, would always act in a pre‐
dictable way, like machines. For example, two law en‐
forcement o�cers will not act the same way in dealing
with a similar situation; in fact, the same law enforce‐
ment o�cer will not deal in exactly the same way when
confronted with a similar situation every time. This dif‐
ference in action will emerge despite the best of training
given to the o�cers. An o�cer called to the shopping
mall for a juvenile shoplifting incident may not make an
arrest the �rst time he or she responds to the scene.
However, on a second response, the o�cer may take cus‐
tody of the juvenile and transport the child to the police
station. In both instances, the amount of property stolen
may be the same, but the o�cer makes a di�erent
decision.
A second criticism brought forth against Taylor (1911)
and Gilbreth’s (1970) research is their consideration that
workers are hired for their physical ability and not for us‐
ing their mind. Their work establishes that the role of
management is to maintain stability and e�ciency, with
top managers doing the thinking and workers doing
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expected that management would do the following:
Develop standard procedures for performing each
job
Select workers with appropriate abilities and skills
to do each job
Train workers in the standard procedures
Support workers through careful planning of their
work
Supervision.
Taylor felt that a single supervisor could not be an expert
in all of the tasks on the shop �oor. Since the supervisors
were promoted after demonstrating high skills in per‐
forming a particular function, they should be considered
an authority only in that area of expertise. Therefore,
each �rst-level supervisor—called foremen on the shop
�oor of a manufacturing plant—should be responsible
only for workers who performed a common function fa‐
miliar to the supervisor. Several of these supervisors
would be assigned to each work area, with each having
separate responsibility for planning, production schedul‐
ing, time and motion studies, material handling, and so
forth in their area of expertise.
Motivation.
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very fast response times.
Mismanagement of Fayol’s organizational elements can
lead to breakdown and disorganization (Dias & Vaughn,
2006; Wren, 1994). For example, when unity of direction
is not strictly adhered to, the criminal justice system
fails. Dias and Vaughn cite the example of administrative
breakdown during the riots of May 1992 in Los Angeles
after the acquittal of the o�cers who were charged with
the beating of Rodney King. It was reported that no spe‐
ci�c senior o�cer of the Los Angeles Police Department
(LAPD) could be identi�ed from whom the frontline o�‐
cers were to receive orders or to whom they were to re‐
port (Police Foundation, 1992). Similarly, the abuses at
Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq were attributed to the unclear
dissemination of procedures, goals, and objectives, which
resulted from con�icting directions that soldiers got
from multiple senior o�cers. There was a lack of unity of
command that led to administrative failure (Hersh,
2004).
Though Fayol’s (1949) managerial functions of planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling are routinely used in
criminal justice agencies, some of the principles are not
compatible with those of contemporary management.
For example, centralization of power and authority at up‐
per levels of the organization is not considered to be a fa‐
vored practice. Instead, modern management principles
allow frontline workers more autonomy and authority
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tify the causes of the problems. In other words, the exter‐
nal environment would not be blamed for the abuse. The
prison and its o�cials would assume that something
within the facility led to these issues.
The closed-system models, some of which may seem un‐
realistic in the present circumstances, were the products
of the problems and subsequent changes that emerged
during the Industrial Revolution. At the beginning of in‐
dustrialization in the mid-1800s, the early factories were
highly ine�cient. There were no documented correct
ways of doing work. Organizations were constantly
thinking of ways to design and manage work to increase
productivity, with the focus primarily being internal. The
theories and models that emerged as a result are often
termed machine models, also popularly known as classical
models or traditional models. These models sought to
make organizations run like e�cient, well-oiled ma‐
chines by correcting the internal functioning of the
organizations.
The three main sub�elds of the classical perspective are
scienti�c management, administrative management,
and bureaucratic management. As will be examined, sci‐
enti�c management focuses on the productivity of the in‐
dividual worker, administrative management focuses on
the functions of the management, and bureaucratic man‐
agement focuses on the overall organizational system
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p
Motivation.
Taylor believed that workers could be motivated to work
at their fullest capabilities through monetary incentives.
Therefore, he advocated a piecework system, in which
the workers’ pay was tied to their output. Workers who
met a standard level of production were paid a standard
wage rate; higher rates were paid for higher production.
He also worked out an incentive system that paid each
employee $1.85 per day for meeting the new standard, an
increase from the previous rate of $1.15. Productivity at
Midvale Steel shot up overnight.
Besides Taylor’s contribution to scienti�c management,
the husband-and-wife team of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
also made signi�cant contributions to the �eld. Frank
Gilbreth specialized in time and motion studies (Gilbreth,
1970; Locke, 1982). He identi�ed the most e�cient ways
to perform tasks in 17 work elements (such as lifting,
grasping, hammering, etc.) and called them therbligs. In
one of his studies, he used motion picture �lm to record
and examine the work of bricklayers; he then restruc‐
tured the tasks in a way that reduced the number of mo‐
tions from 18 to 5, resulting in a 200% productivity in‐
crease (Lewis, Goodman, & Fandt, 2001). Lillian Gilbreth
focused on the human aspects of industrial engineering
for improving e�ciency and productivity. She favored
d d d f ki di i h d l d l h62% of sample
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resulted from con�icting directions that soldiers got
from multiple senior o�cers. There was a lack of unity of
command that led to administrative failure (Hersh,
2004).
Though Fayol’s (1949) managerial functions of planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling are routinely used in
criminal justice agencies, some of the principles are not
compatible with those of contemporary management.
For example, centralization of power and authority at up‐
per levels of the organization is not considered to be a fa‐
vored practice. Instead, modern management principles
allow frontline workers more autonomy and authority
for making and carrying out decisions. Modern manage‐
ment places much more emphasis on good training that
will enable the o�cers to make appropriate decisions
rather than always reverting back to the centralized
power hub to get directions. Training improves o�cers’
skills, making them more aware of the demands of the
environment in which they are working, and thus en‐
abling them to provide superior service to all of their cus‐
tomers (e.g., citizens, clients, o�enders, arrestees, de‐
tainees, etc.). By de�nition, anybody to whom an agency
provides a professional service is the customer.
Contemporary management views employees as valuable
assets whose interests must be considered at all times
(Lewis et al., 2001).
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tainees, etc.). By de�nition, anybody to whom an agency
provides a professional service is the customer.
Contemporary management views employees as valuable
assets whose interests must be considered at all times
(Lewis et al., 2001).
Bureaucratic Management
Whereas scienti�c management focuses on the produc‐
tivity of the individual worker, and administrative man‐
agement focuses on the functions of the manager, bu‐
reaucratic management focuses on the overall organiza‐
tional system in which both the workers and the man‐
agers interact. The bureaucratic model was developed by
Max Weber (1947), and it emphasizes designing and
managing organizations based on �ve principles:
1. Impersonal social relations. Weber did not favor em‐
ployees relating on a social basis in the workplace.
He felt such interactions led to nepotism (fa‐
voritism based on social connections), which com‐
promised productivity and e�ciency. Therefore, he
said that organizations should operate according to
laws, which would eliminate such favoritism.
According to him, productivity should be the sole
measure of performance. He emphasized distance
between supervisors and workers and felt there was
no place for emotions in rule enforcement.
Maintaining personal distance was considered a
strong defense against the potential loss of power in
the event that a supervisor was required to repri‐
mand the subordinate. In application to criminal
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ment focuses on managers and the functions they per‐
form. Henri Fayol (1841–1925), a French mining engi‐
neer, gained popularity when he revitalized a struggling
mining company and turned it into a �nancial success.
Based on this successful experience, he identi�ed man‐
agement functions as planning, organizing,
commanding/leading, coordinating, and controlling. He
proposed 14 general principles of management, which
formed the foundation for modern practice and organiza‐
tional design (Fayol, 1949) and are discussed below.
Fayol’s General Principles of Management
1. Division of work. E�ciency and productivity could
be improved by dividing the work into smaller work
elements called tasks and assigning them to the
workers. High repetition of tasks improves the
learning, thus increasing the e�ciency and produc‐
tivity of employees.
2. Authority. To carry out managerial responsibilities,
the managers should have the authority to issue
commands to their sta�.
3. Discipline. The sta� should be disciplined to obey
the issued commands and the rules of the organiza‐
tion for its smooth functioning.
4. Unity of command. Each worker should get orders
from one boss to whom he or she reports. This clear
line of command will avoid con�icts and confusion.
5. Unity of direction. All similar and related activities
should be organized and directed under one man‐
ager. Such an arrangement will also facilitate unity
of command.
6. Subordination of individual interest to the general in‐
terest. The goals of the organization should super‐
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lines in the manuals. It is not uncommon for o�cers to
spend the �rst or second eight-hour day of their training
with an agency doing nothing but reading the policy
manual. Batts et al. (2012) suggest, “Like the auto assem‐
bly plants of Henry Ford, traditional police agencies are
characterized by a hierarchical authority structure that
clearly distinguishes decision-makers from line sta�, em‐
phasizes adherence to principles of structure over �exi‐
bility, and prizes uniform operations” (p. 2).
Administrative Management
Scienti�c management focused primarily on the techni‐
cal core—that is, the work performed on the shop �oor by
the frontline workers. In contrast, administrative manage‐
ment focuses on managers and the functions they per‐
form. Henri Fayol (1841–1925), a French mining engi‐
neer, gained popularity when he revitalized a struggling
mining company and turned it into a �nancial success.
Based on this successful experience, he identi�ed man‐
agement functions as planning, organizing,
commanding/leading, coordinating, and controlling. He
proposed 14 general principles of management, which
formed the foundation for modern practice and organiza‐
tional design (Fayol, 1949) and are discussed below.
Fayol’s General Principles of Management
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A second criticism brought forth against Taylor (1911)
and Gilbreth’s (1970) research is their consideration that
workers are hired for their physical ability and not for us‐
ing their mind. Their work establishes that the role of
management is to maintain stability and e�ciency, with
top managers doing the thinking and workers doing
what they are told. As mentioned in Chapter 1, innova‐
tive or creative thinking is not always a valued character‐
istic in criminal justice. This is grossly apparent in the
police policy manuals that cover just about any action
and situation an o�cer will experience. Consequently,
o�cers are limited, in many cases, in their responses to
everyday calls for service as they strictly adhere to guide‐
lines in the manuals. It is not uncommon for o�cers to
spend the �rst or second eight-hour day of their training
with an agency doing nothing but reading the policy
manual. Batts et al. (2012) suggest, “Like the auto assem‐
bly plants of Henry Ford, traditional police agencies are
characterized by a hierarchical authority structure that
clearly distinguishes decision-makers from line sta�, em‐
phasizes adherence to principles of structure over �exi‐
bility, and prizes uniform operations” (p. 2).
Administrative Management
Scienti�c management focused primarily on the techni‐
cal core—that is, the work performed on the shop �oor by
the frontline workers. In contrast, administrative manage‐64% of sample
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g
Though each sub�eld has a somewhat di�erent focus,
they contain some overlapping elements and compo‐
nents. All of these models assume that people are rational
beings, who act logically and correctly when faced by a
given situation. In other words, these models assume
that labor is homogenous and that workers behave and
act the same way every time they face a similar situation.
According to these models, the correctional o�cer, the
police o�cer, and the jury will all behave the same way
when presented with similar situations at di�erent times
and in di�erent places.
Scienti�c Management
In scienti�c management, the focus was on improving
individual productivity. Frederick Winslow Taylor
(1856–1915), the father of scienti�c management, be‐
lieved that poor management practices and procedures
were the primary problems. While employed at Midvale
Steel Company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he began
experimenting with methods that focused on the
worker–machine relationship in manufacturing plants.
Based on his observations, he formulated opinions in the
areas of task performance, supervision, and motivation
that are discussed here (Locke, 1982; Taylor, 1911).
Task performance.
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predictable, and they assume that they do not intervene
in or cause problems for the functioning of an organiza‐
tion. Therefore, the closed-system models do not depend
on the external environment for explanations or solu‐
tions to managerial issues; instead, they are enclosed and
sealed o� from the outside world (Daft, 2015). These
models rely primarily on internal organizational pro‐
cesses and dynamics to account for organizational,
group, and individual behaviors.
Close
d systems are eas‐
ier to deal with theoretically than open systems, and they
are preferred, despite their limitations. For example, if
abuse of prisoners took place in a certain prison, a closed-
system approach would look for explanations for the
abuse within the prison itself and then adopt correc‐
tional procedures. The prison would examine the prison
policies, prison warden, correctional o�cers, prison cul‐
ture, o�cer–inmate interaction, inmate–inmate interac‐
tion, and other organizational components of the prison.
It would not consider environmental in�uences to iden‐
tify the causes of the problems. In other words, the exter‐
nal environment would not be blamed for the abuse. The
prison and its o�cials would assume that something
within the facility led to these issues.
The closed-system models, some of which may seem un‐
realistic in the present circumstances, were the products
of the problems and subsequent changes that emerged
during the Industrial Revolution. At the beginning of in‐
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11. Equity. Management should display equity, fairness,
and a sense of justice toward subordinates.
12. Stability of personnel tenure. Employees learn with
experience, making them more productive and e�‐
cient with tenure and job security. Therefore, em‐
ployee turnover should be prevented as much as
possible.
13. Initiative. The general work environment should
provide the subordinates su�cient freedom to take
initiative in carrying out their day-to-day work.
14. Esprit de corps. Management should foster worker
morale, team spirit, and harmony among workers to
create a sense of organizational unity.
Many of the principles proposed by Fayol, such as divi‐
sion of work, authority and responsibility, unity of direc‐
tion, remuneration of personnel, and order (Fayol, 1949),
are compatible with the views of scienti�c management
and apply well to the criminal justice system. Fayol favors
division of labor, a principle that is implemented in crim‐
inal justice agencies. There are line personnel (police o�‐
cers, correctional o�cers, probation o�cers, juvenile o�‐
cers) who are frontline workers implementing the orga‐
nizational goals and objectives. Specialized sta� members
work behind the scenes, supporting the frontline o�cers
by providing advice in such areas as planning, research,
legal issues, and so forth. Auxiliary functions provide lo‐
gistical support, including record keeping, communica‐
tions, operations, map directions, coordination, and so on
(Wren, 1994). Specialization and division of labor bring
e�ciency by focusing on understanding the law and
mastering the technicalities of work. Specialization al‐
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(Wren, 1994). Specialization and division of labor bring
e�ciency by focusing on understanding the law and
mastering the technicalities of work. Specialization al‐
lows workers to develop greater expertise, thus enabling
them to perform the work more e�ciently. Fayol also fa‐
vors centralization of power and authority at upper levels
of the organization.
Furthermore, Fayol (1949) proposes subordination of in‐
dividual interests to the goals of the organization. Such
centralized authority is observed in policing and correc‐
tions. Most decisions are vested in the hands of the ad‐
ministration and are delivered from the top down. Work
is often designed and assigned to criminal justice o�cers
with e�ciency and productivity in mind. Authority re‐
sides with the supervisors to enable them to give orders
and get the work done. There is strict discipline, making
it essential that members of the criminal justice system
respect the rules that govern it. There is unity of com‐
mand, unity of direction, and adherence to the uninter‐
rupted chain of authority in law enforcement, correc‐
tions, and security agencies. There is also emphasis
placed on equipment being well maintained and put in
the right place to be available at the right time, since nu‐
merous situations that arise in criminal justice require
very fast response times.
Mismanagement of Fayol’s organizational elements can
lead to breakdown and disorganization (Dias & Vaughn67% of sample
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models or traditional models. These models sought to
make organizations run like e�cient, well-oiled ma‐
chines by correcting the internal functioning of the
organizations.
The three main sub�elds of the classical perspective are
scienti�c management, administrative management,
and bureaucratic management. As will be examined, sci‐
enti�c management focuses on the productivity of the in‐
dividual worker, administrative management focuses on
the functions of the management, and bureaucratic man‐
agement focuses on the overall organizational system
within which the workers and management interact.
Though each sub�eld has a somewhat di�erent focus,
they contain some overlapping elements and compo‐
nents. All of these models assume that people are rational
beings, who act logically and correctly when faced by a
given situation. In other words, these models assume
that labor is homogenous and that workers behave and
act the same way every time they face a similar situation.
According to these models, the correctional o�cer, the
police o�cer, and the jury will all behave the same way
when presented with similar situations at di�erent times
and in di�erent places.
Scienti�c Management
In scienti�c management the focus was on improving60% of sample
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from one boss to whom he or she reports. This clear
line of command will avoid con�icts and confusion.
5. Unity of direction. All similar and related activities
should be organized and directed under one man‐
ager. Such an arrangement will also facilitate unity
of command.
6. Subordination of individual interest to the general in‐
terest. The goals of the organization should super‐
sede the interests of individual employees.
7. Remuneration of personnel. The �nancial compensa‐
tion for the work done should be based on the prin‐
ciple of fairness to both the employees and the
organization.
8. Centralization. Power and authority should be con‐
centrated at upper levels of the organization.
However, the middle management and their subor‐
dinates should be given su�cient authority to per‐
form their jobs properly.
9. Scalar chain. A single, continuous line of authority
should extend from the top level to the lowest front‐
line worker in the organization.
10. Order. An organization should provide a work envi‐
ronment where the policies, rules, instructions, and
so forth are clear and easily understood, resulting in
both material and social order. Worker productivity
improves when the system ensures that materials
are in the right place at the right time and that the
right workers are assigned to the jobs best suited to
their skills.
11. Equity. Management should display equity, fairness,
and a sense of justice toward subordinates.
12. Stability of personnel tenure. Employees learn with
experience, making them more productive and e�‐
cient with tenure and job security. Therefore, em‐
ployee turnover should be prevented as much as
possible.
13. Initiative. The general work environment should
provide the subordinates su�cient freedom to take66% of sample
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Taylor (1911) was convinced that decisions about organi‐
zations and job design should be based on precise, scien‐
ti�c study of individual situations. He believed that there
was one right way of doing each task, and he attempted
to de�ne and document those optimal procedures
through systematic study. Taylor calculated that with
correct movements, tools, and sequencing, each man was
capable of loading 47.5 tons of steel per day instead of
the typical 12.5 tons, and Midvale Steel would be able to
reduce the number of shovelers needed from 600 to 140.
These types of observations are examples of time and mo‐
tion studies, which identify and measure a worker’s phys‐
ical movements and record the time of activity to deter‐
mine how to do an activity through the smallest amount
of e�ort. To implement these scienti�c principles, it was
expected that management would do the following:
Develop standard procedures for performing each
job
Select workers with appropriate abilities and skills
to do each job
Train workers in the standard procedures
Support workers through careful planning of their
work
Supervision.
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