Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6 Outline
1. Work motivation
a. Set of forces, internal and external to an individual, that drive the person to behave in a certain manner (presumably, meeting organizational needs) (pg. 165)
b. Two approaches to studying work motivation
i. Content/needs theories: address innate/inherent needs that lead to motivation
ii. Process theories: address the interaction of needs and behavior; how to enhance motivation
2. Content/needs theories
a. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
i. Levels
1. Physiological needs: food, water, shelter
2. Safety needs: free from harm; desire for security
3. Belonging needs: friendship, love, affection
4. Esteem needs: self image, social image
5. Self-actualization needs: reaching potential
ii. Operation
1. Satisfaction progression process: lowest unmet need is the motivator
2. Self-actualizers want more; will continue to be motivated
3. Overall, evidence supporting the hierarchy is limited
b. Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth (ERG) theory
i. Three categories
1. Existence needs
2. Relatedness needs
3. Growth needs
ii. Operation
1. Satisfaction progression process: lowest unmet need is the motivator
2. Frustration-regression sequence: those consistently frustrated in pursuit of needs will regress to next lower category
c. Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory
i. Two factors
1. Motivators: satisfy growth and esteem needs
2. Hygiene factors: cause dissatisfaction
ii. Operation
1. Dealing with hygiene factors will not lead to motivation; it will only prevent dissatisfaction
2. Must focus on motivators
d. McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs
i. Achievement
ii. Power
iii. Affiliation
3. Process theories: Link needs to worker behaviors
a. Expectancy theory
i. Parts
1. Valence: does a person value the outcomes?
2. Instrumentality: does a person understand the behaviors that will lead to outcomes?
3. Expectancy: does a person have the ability and opportunity?
ii. Operation
1. Works in a multiplicative fashion
2. All factors must be high in order for motivation to be high
b. Equity theory
i. Parts
1. Inputs: expectation of effort required to do job
2. Output: expectation of what worker will receive for effort
ii. Operation
1. Input/outcome ratios are compared
2. Overpayment v. underpayment inequity
c. Procedural justice theory
i. Addresses fairness of procedures used in dealing with grievances, disputes, performance measurement, etc.
ii. Actual outcome is less important
d. Reinforcement theory
i. People repeat pleasurable and avoid painful behavior
ii. Part
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Escape or avoidance reinforcement
3. Repeated non-reinforcement
4. Punishment
4. Workplace design
a. Job design
i. Scientific management
ii. Job enlargement (horizontal job loading)
iii. Job enrichment (vertical job loading)
iv. Job characteristics model: design job to be intrinsically motivating
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
b. Goal setting
i. Goal: target or desired end result
ii. Goal characteristics
1. Specificity
2. Difficulty
iii. Management by objectives (MBO)
5. Performance evaluations
a. Link worker inputs to rewards
b. Fits process theories
i. Expectancy theory
ii. Equity theory
iii. Procedural justice theory
c. Issues
i. Formal v. informal appraisals
ii. What factors are included in evaluations?
1. Traits
2. Behaviors
3. Results
iii. Who does the appraisal?
1. Self appraisal
2. Peer appraisal
3. Subordinate appraisal
4. Customer/client appraisal
5. 360-degree appraisal
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7 Outline
1. What is leadership?
a. Difficult to define; no consistent definition
b. Two parts to many definitions
i. Involves influencing members of a group
ii. Involves directing members’ efforts to the achievement of organizational goals
c. What do leaders do?
2. Explaining leadership
a. Trait approach
i. Traits/characteristics linked with effective leadership
ii. Traits/characteristics were primarily inborn
i
ii. Examples
: honesty, integrity, motivation, people-skills
iv. Evidence is questionable—are traits linked with leadership behaviors?
b. Behavioral approach
i. Leadership behavior rather than leadership characteristics
ii. Ohio State University studies identified two different dimensions
1. Consideration
2. Initiating structure
iii. Research studies were not able to identify the best combination of the two dimensions.
c. Contingency theories/situational leadership
i. There is no one best style of leadership; it all depends
ii. Examples
1. Fielder’s contingency theory
a. Styles
i. Relationship oriented
ii. Task oriented
b. Style determined by least preferred coworker (LPC) scale
c. Contingency variables
i. Group atmosphere
ii. Task structure
iii. Position power
d. Operation
i. When all are favorable or unfavorable= task-oriented
ii. When contingencies are mixed = relationship-oriented
2. Hersey and Blanchard’s contingency theory
a. Leadership styles
i. Telling
ii. Selling
iii. Participating
iv. Delegating
b. Contingencies
i. Psychological readiness: willingness/eagerness to perform task
ii. Task readiness: ability to perform task
c. Leadership style must adapt to readiness of followers
3. Path-goal theory
a. Leadership behavior
i. Supportive
ii. Directive
iii. Participative
iv. Achievement-oriented
b. Contingencies
i. Personal characteristics of group members: skills, abilities, willingness
ii. Work environment: clarity of task; power
c. Operation depends on contingencies; for example, use a directive style when task is unclear. The goal is to allow workers to achieve goals
4. Vroom and Yetton’s model
a. Focuses on decision making and whether subordinates should be included in decision making to improve the process
b. A decision tree is used considering a variety of factors (e.g., time available) in order to determine level of subordinate involvement
d. Transactional leadership theory
i. Focuses on interaction between leader and follower
ii. Two interaction processes
1. Contingent reward leadership: manager helps subordinate reach goals by clarifying expectations, offering support, and providing structure
2. Management by exception: manager interacts with subordinates only when subordinate deviates from expectations (fail to adhere to standards)
e. Change leadership theories
i. Leaders can change an entire organization
ii. Examples
1. Charismatic leadership
a. Produce change by having personality characteristics that attract followers
b. Earn the trust and confidence of followers
2. Transformational leadership
a. Change the organization by motivating workers to achieve at higher levels
b. Process
i. Increase subordinates’ awareness of importance of task
ii. Increase subordinates’ awareness of their need for personal development
iii. Motivating subordinates to fulfill their goals and be a part of the organization’s success
c. Dimensions
i. Inspirational motivation
ii. Intellectual stimulation
iii. Idealized influence
iv. Individualized consideration
3. Leadership styles
a. Most famous is the managerial grid (Blake and Mouton)
b. Two dimensions
i. Concern for people
ii. Concern for results
c. Combinations
i. Contribute and commit
ii. Control and dominate
iii. Yield and comply
iv. Balance and compromise
v. Evade and elude
4. Leadership skills
a. The assumption is that these can be taught through training/education
b. Examples from the Competing Values Framework
i. Clan skills
ii. Adhocracy skills
iii. Hierarchy skills
iv. Market skills
c. Other skills
i. Technical skills
ii. Human resource management skills
iii. Conceptual skills
5. Criminal justice organizations
a. Current status: authoritarian dominates
b. Emerging research suggests worker preference for transformational or participative styles
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Work Motivation
Defined
Set of forces, internal and external to an individual, that drive the person to behave in a certain manner (presumably, meeting organizational needs) (pg. 165)
Two general approaches to studying work motivation
Content/need theories
Process theories
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Content/Needs Theories
Address what people want– their needs– that motivate them to behave in a certain way
Theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth (ERG) theory
Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory
McClelland’s theory of learned needs
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Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
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Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy (cont’d)
Satisfaction-progression process
Lowest unmet need in hierarchy is primary motivator
Once met, the next unmet need becomes the motivator
Once individual’s self-actualize, they want more rather than less
Questions
Do needs cluster this nicely? Not necessarily
Is there empirical support for this model? Not necessarily
Example: A police officer is willing to keep silent on a colleague’s misconduct (belonging needs) but, in doing so, risks his own job (security needs are sacrificed)
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Existence-Relatedness-Growth
Existence needs: physiological and security needs for material things
Relatedness needs: need for interpersonal security and belongingness
Growth needs: development of human potential
Operation
Satisfaction-progression process (like Maslow)
Frustration-regression sequence
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Frustration-regression sequence suggests that if goals are routinely frustrated or blocked, the person might regress back to the next lower category.
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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory (cont’d)
Motivators: satisfy growth and esteem needs
Responsibility
Achievement
Personal growth
Hygiene factors: if not attended to, will create dissatisfaction; will not produce job satisfaction/motivation
Pay
Benefits
Working conditions
Relationship with supervisors
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs
Some needs are learned or reinforced through experience
Three types of needs
Achievement
Workers want to achieve goals independently
They set moderate (challenging but reachable) goals
They require feedback to know what they have accomplished
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs (cont’d)
Power
Personalized: power for own sake; status
Socialized: power for good of others; to improve society
Affiliation
Desire approval and reassurance from others
Conform to wishes of others whose friendships they value
Interest in feelings of others
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Summary of Content Theories
People have internal and learned needs and are motivated by unmet needs
Manager motivates by communicating that certain behaviors will allow workers to meet these needs
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Process Theories
Link the needs identified in the different needs theories to actual worker behavior
Theories
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Procedural justice theory
Reinforcement theory
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Expectancy Theory
Parts of the theory
Valence: how desirable are the outcomes?
An officer may not be motivated to participate in the promotional process because the extra pay is not worth the extra responsibilities
Instrumentality: will work result in outcome?
An officer does not attend community meetings because it is not valued by supervisor; work will not likely lead to valued outcomes
Expectancies: does a person have opportunity and ability to complete the work?
An officer does not attend community meetings because she is overwhelmed by the number of 911 calls; she lacks opportunity
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Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
Operates in a multiplicative fashion
For motivation to be highest, all three factors must be high.
Individual must value rewards
Individual must see connection between performance and outcomes
Individual must have opportunity and ability to perform/achieve outcomes
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Equity Theory
Parts
Inputs: effort required to do the job (expected)
Outputs: outcome received for doing job (expected)
Operation
Worker compares own input/outcome ratio to others
Inequity occurs when ratios are different
Overpayment inequity
Underpayment inequity
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Overpayment inequity: a person receives more outputs given their inputs
Underpayment inequity: a person receives fewer outputs given their inputs
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Procedural Justice Theory
Focuses less on the actual outcomes and more on the procedures used to arrive at those outcomes
Workers will be motivated if procedures to resolve disputes, measure performance, etc. are fair, regardless of outcome
Treatment of workers with honesty, courtesy, etc.
Transparency and objectiveness in process
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Reinforcement Theory
People repeat rewarding behavior and avoid unpleasant behavior
Techniques of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement: reward behavior
Escape or avoidance reinforcement: painful or unpleasant consequences will be removed upon completion of task
Repeated non-reinforcement: eliminates undesirable behaviors
Punishment: present unpleasant consequence to remove undesirable behavior
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Workplace Design
Can the job be designed so that accomplishment meets individual and organizational needs?
Job design
Scientific management: use less effort to accomplish task; experience greater outcomes (extrinsic motivation)
Job enlargement: increasing the number of tasks associated with the job (horizontal job loading)
Job enrichment: give workers supervisor-type responsibilities (vertical job loading)
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More Workplace Design
Job Characteristics Model
Created in 1970s by Hackman and Oldham
Jobs with certain characteristics are self-motivating, self-rewarding (intrinsically motivating)
Core job dimensions
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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More Workplace Design
Goal setting
Elements
Goal: “a target or desired end result accomplished through one’s behavior and actions” (pg. 187)
Goal characteristics
Specificity: can be measured objectively
Difficulty: more difficulty = higher levels of effort
Management by objectives (MBO)
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Performance Evaluations
Evaluate workers’ input in order to distribute rewards (outcomes)
Fits within process theories of motivation
Expectancy theory: workers know what is valued
Equity theory: workers receive outcomes consistent with inputs
Procedural justice theory: evaluation process is fair/transparent
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Performance Appraisal Issues
Types
Formal: detailed, less frequent, determined in advance
Informal: more general, more frequent, ad hoc
What factors are included in evaluations?
Traits
Behaviors
Results
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Who Should Conduct the Appraisals?
Self appraisal
Worker evaluates himself/herself
Peer appraisal
Coworkers perform evaluation (conflicts of interest?)
Subordinate appraisal
Evaluations by those working under supervisor
Customer/client appraisal
Provided by outsiders who have contact with the organization
360 degree appraisal
Multiple sources are used and aggregated
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Chapter 6: Motivation
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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What is Leadership
Very difficult to define; no agreement on definition
Two characteristics of leadership
Influencing members of a group
Directing the group’s effort toward the achievement of organizational goals
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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What do Leaders do? How is Leadership Behavior Explained?
Some examples
They change follower behaviors
They overcome resistance
They work toward the achievement of goals
The coordinate ideas, people, and resources
How do we explain leadership behavior?
Traits
Behaviors
Contingency theories
Transactional leadership
Change leadership theories (e.g., transformational leadership)
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Trait Theories: Overview
Certain characteristics or traits are assumed to be linked with effective leadership
Implication Leaders were born rather than made since characteristics were inherent in person
Examples
Honesty
Integrity
Sense of achievement
Self confidence
People skills
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Trait Theories: Criticisms and Current Status
Focused on what people are rather than what they do
A police office is promoted to sergeant based on exam scores. Does their intelligence necessarily translate into strong leadership behaviors?
Research has not consistently found links between traits and leadership
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Behavioral Approaches: Overview
Focus on actual leadership behavior rather than characteristics
Ohio State University studies identified two different dimensions of leadership behavior
Consideration: tend to employee needs; caring; two way communication
Initiating structure: set goals and standards of performance; focused on completing task
Problem: studies could not determine best combination of behaviors that resulted in positive outcomes
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Contingency Theories
Also referred to as situational theories
Summary
There is no one best style of leadership
The best style depends (it is “contingent” upon) the situation
Examples of contingency theories (differ based on the contingencies or variables considered)
Fiedler’s contingency theory
Hersey and Blanchard’s contingency theory
Path-goal theory
Vroom and Yetton’s model
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Fielder’s Contingency Theory
Two leadership styles: determined by least preferred co-worker scale (positive description=relationship; less positive=task)
Relationship-oriented: similar to consideration
Task-oriented: similar to initiating structure
Contingency variables
Group atmosphere
Task structure
Position power
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Fielder’s Contingency Theory (cont’d)
Operation
When all contingencies are favorable or unfavorable, a leader should adopt a task-oriented style.
When contingencies are mixed, a relationship-oriented approach should be used.
Criticisms
The LPC measure suggests that leadership is one dimensional (a person is high in one style or the other)
LPC score is a trait that does not change much; a person’s style is fixed
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Hersey and Blanchard’s Contingency Theory
Leadership styles
Telling
Selling
Participating
Delegating
Contingencies
Psychological readiness: are followers willing/eager/confident to perform task?
Task readiness: are followers able to perform task?
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Hersey and Blanchard’s Contingency Theory (cont’d)
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Path-Goal Theory
Leadership behavior
Supportive: open, friendly
Directive: telling workers what to do
Participative: consults workers; allows them to participate in decision-making
Achievement-oriented: trust workers to be highly productive
Contingencies
Personal characteristics of group members: skill, abilities, willingness to perform
Work environment: clarity of task; power
Style depends on contingencies as examples illustrate
Unclear task requires directive behavior
Achievement-oriented style used when workers are confident and able to perform task
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Vroom and Yetton’s Model
Leadership involves effective decision-making
Quality of decisions determines whether goals are achieved
Including subordinates in decision-making can improve process
Amount of subordinate involvement depends upon a variety of factors including:
Amount of information available to subordinates
Amount of time available to make decisions
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Transactional Leadership Theory
Focuses on interaction between leader and followers
Two interaction processes
Contingent reward leadership: manager helps subordinate reach goals by providing structure, support, goals
Management by exception: manager interacts only when subordinate deviates from expectations (e.g., violates standards)
Active
Passive
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Chapter 7: Leadership
Active- try to anticipate mistakes
Passive- provide negative feedback at performance evaluation time
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Change Leadership Theories
Rather than just focus on how leaders and groups interact, these theories focus on how leaders can change an entire organization
Examples (collectively called outstanding leadership theories)
Charismatic leadership
Transformational leadership
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Charismatic Leadership
Generate organizational change by having personality characteristics that draw people in (motivating/inspiring)
Earn the trust and confidence of followers
Motivate followers to aspire to higher levels of motivation (recall Maslow’s hierarchy)
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Chapter 7: Leadership
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership
William Bratton, former NYPD and LAPD commissioner, is an example.
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Transformational Leadership
Leaders work to change the organization by motivating subordinates to achieve higher levels of performance
Process for inspiring subordinates
Increase their awareness of the importance of the task
Make them aware of their own need for growth and development
Motivate them to fulfill their growth and development needs and be a part of the organization’s success
Additional elements: inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation; idealized influence; individualized consideration
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Leadership Styles
One of the most famous examples of leadership style is the Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton)
Two axis in the grid
Concern for people (consideration)
Concern for results (initiating structure)
Combinations result in five leadership styles
Team management: high people, high results
Control and dominate: low people, high results
Yield and comply: high people, low results
Balance and compromise: mid-range people and results
Evade and elude: low people and low results
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership
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Leadership Skills
The assumption is that these can be developed through training/education
Derived from the Competing Values Framework
Clan skills: interpersonal skills
Adhocracy skills: address future issues and promote change (e.g., create a vision)
Hierarchy skills: manage time/stress, keep control
Market skills: motivate others; manage external relationships
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Chapter 7: Leadership
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Criminal Justice Organizations
Generally dominated by authoritarian (transactional) leadership approaches
A growing body of research suggest that criminal justice workers prefer more transformation or participative styles
Results in higher productivity and job satisfaction
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