One major implication of managing change presented in the text is that change is a process where there is a complex and not necessarily predictable relationship between actions and outcomes. With this backdrop, describe one or two main concepts presented in this course that you believe can be of most use to you as a change manager.
AT LEAST ONE CITATION FROM ATTACHMENT
Chapter讐r綴
Sust訓nm9 Change ve『s
u
s
豊n菖t脳t~e Decay
Learning objectives
Bytheendofthlschapteryoushouldbeableto:
国璽圃圃圃
Underst
and
theCausesofinitiativedecay threatstothesustainability
o
f
chan9e
.
Distinguishbetweenchangeinitiativesthatare“bl
a
notbesustained,andthosethatare“praiseworthy.
”
ー国璽圃璽圃
Distinguishbetweenchangeinitiativesthatare‘‘blamevvorthy′andshould
圏圏瞳園
1dentifyandapp1yactionsthatcancontributetothesustainabi1ityofChange
・
圏圃 圏 圃
Understandthepitfa--sthatcanar鷹e whenseekingtosustainchange,
romokeod/’?;erence.
”
TomBrokaw,journalist
356
ChaPte「11
S”srq′′7′′7gC’?”′7gel’餅敬′s方7mqmieDecのノ
馴霞圏圏
lnitiative Decay andlmProvementEVaPorati
o
n
Yourreorganization
w
as
implemented
successfully.Significantbenefits
wer
e
achieved.
Revisitingtheinitiativesomemonthslater,however,youfindthatthenew workingprac
-
ticesandincreasedperFormance1eve1sappearnottohaVebeen maintained,Things
have
gonebackto wherethey werebe危reyoustarted. How didthishappen? UnFortunately,
thisisacommonstory.Evensuccessfulinitiativescandecay,leadingto“theimprovemen
t
evaporatione節ect”asthegainsarelost.
Formanyorga山Zations,itisastrategic 無]perativetoembed,tohave“stickab近t%
”and
t
o
ma血tainchangesandtheircontributiontoper危rmance,TMSchapterfbcusesontheProblems
ofsusta出血gchangeandonthepracticalstepsthatcanbetakentoincreasetheprobab近ty
thatchangesonceimplementedwiuendure,thattheywiUbecomeinstitutionalにedandregarded
asnormalpractice,T垣sisnotanewProblem,hiwingbeen魚mouslyident近edbyLewin(1951)
astheneedto“re丘eeze“behavioroncechangehastakenplace.TheattentionofPractic血
g
managersandacadetnlcresearchershas危cusedonthefirsttwostagesofhismodel,
“ulぜreez-
ingand“moving.
”T1eproblem ofre丑eezing,orsusta”lingchange,islesswellunderstood.
nleremaybeawidesPreadassumptionthatifchangeshavebeensuccessful,theywinauto
‐
maticallybesustained.11]atassumption,however,appearstobeincorrect.Susta”ling
change
may中somecasesbemoredif6‐cultthan加lplementingchange中thefirstP1ace,
Findon 海umbe,
”OCM:Sustaining Change“(2017,3:33 minutes),
SustaiPab道tyゴ畝lpliesthatnew work血g methodsandperあrmancelevelsare maintained
あran appropriateperiod orthatnew practices
and processes areroutもロizedunt旦
they
becomeobsolete,W′hatarethecausesofimtiat~edecayγwhatstePscanbetakento加crease
theprobab道tythatchangesw皿besustainedandbecomeembeddedintheorganizationas
routinepractice?Aswehaveexploredinotherchapters,whatisconsideredtobeachievable
withregardtosusta血血gchangedePendsonhow managi鴎gchangeisunderstood.Theviews
ofsustainabi亘ty丘omeachinlageofchange managementaresummarizedintablell,
1,
TABLEII]
lmagesofD4anagingandSustainingChange
-mage
ViewofSustain
ability
D′rect
o
r
ltistheresponsibilityofthechangemanagertodesignthechangeprocessanddirect
otherstocomply,toensurethatplannedobjectivesareachieved.
~ov′goto「
Thechangemanagerdesignsthechangeprocesstofitthecontext,recognizing
th
at
modificationswillberequiredandthattheoutcomemaynotbeasintended.
Coretoker
Changeoutcomeswillbedeterminedprimarilybycontextualfactors,andnot
by
managementintervention.
CO。ch
Thechangemanager’smainroleistohelpotherstodevelopthecapabilitiesnecessary
toachievetheintendedoutcomesofthecha
nge.
′〃terPrefer
Thechangemanagerdevelopsanunderstandingofthemeaningandsignificanceof
the
changesandwhatwi=countassuccessfuloutcomes.
~urlurer
Changeoutcomesareinconstantfluxandarelargelybeyondmanagementcontrol.
Chapterll
s”財α′″/″g‐c力α〃gel’ers”sZ″′『′α互veDeじのノ
357
Robe「tReisner(2002)examinestheU.S.Posta-Ser‐
vice,
which
during
the
l99os,
‘‘transformed
itself
fromthebuttofsitcomjokesintoaprofitable
and
efficiententerprisざ{P,45).By2001,however,
mo‐
ra-eandperformancewerelowandlosseswerepre‐
dicted.VVhywasthetransformati
on
not
sustained?
Reisner(vicepresidentforstrategicp-anning)b-ames
three”momentum
busters’’:the
indifferenceofse-
niormanagers,whoregardedsomeaspectsofstrat-
egyasa”distraction”;resistancefromtradeunions,
whose
roleandvoice
had
been
margina-ized;and
theinabi-itytosteerfundingthroughabudgetpro-
cessthatfavoredtraditionalinitiativesoverlnnova-
tions.lnnovation
was
aーso
stifled
by governance
constraints.
VVhat
one
competitor,UPS,achieved,
theU,S,PostaIServicecouldnothaveinitiatedwith-
outa
priorhearing
process
beforethePostaI
Rate
Commission,and majorstructuraーchanges would
haverequiredCongressionalsanction.Thesituation
wasexacerbatedbyaweakeconomy,problems
with
e‐commerce,andterroristassaultsontheU,S.PostaI
Service.
Reisne s(2002,p.52)conc-usionisoptimistic:
”Despitethelimitstoanytransformationeffon,ac-
complishingmeaningfulchangeineventhelargest,
mostcompーex,andtraditionboundoforganizations
is
achieva
ble.
”However,the
ーeadership,organlza-
tional,and
contextuaー
causes
of
initiative
decay
needtobeaddressedtosustainthesechanges(Bu-
chananeta-.,2005),
VVehavetorecognizethat managementmayhavenodirectcontrolovermany
ofthe
魚ctorsthatcanjeopardizethesustainabilityofchange.Thatdoes not mean,however,
thatitisnotPossibletoanticiPateandtocounterthose 短ctorsinsomemanner.
Forchangesto“stick,
”theymust“seepintothebloodstream,
“become“thenewnorm,
“
“bakedintotheorganization,
“or,asKotter(2007,p.103)observes,acceptedas“the
way
wedothingsaroundhere.
”Thatis,itmustbecomeanintegralpartofthe
organizational
culture,orwhathasalsobeendescribedasthe“mind‐set’’oftheorganization
’s members
(LawsonandPrice,2003).This meansthatnewstructures,processes,and workmgprac‐
ticesare nolongerseen as“change,
“ withalltheemotional,political,and operational
connotationsthataccompanythatterm.Unlessthishappens,changemayprovetobejust
apassingdiversion,ate1鯖ーporarydisruption.However,asweeXp1oredinchapter5,cu1ture
changeisnotastraightあrwardprocess.ASLou G‐erstner(2002,pp.182and187)once
said,re]庵rringtohisleadershipofthesuccessfultransおormationof1BDd:
lcametosee,inn[lytilneatIBM,thatcultureisn’tjustoneaspectofthegal1rle-itisthe
game.Vision,strategy,marketing,financialmanagement-anymanagementsystem,in 態ct-
cansetyouontherightpathandcancarryyou 免rawhile.Butnoenterprise-whether
in
business,government,education,healthcare,oranyareaofhumanendeavor-willsucceed
overthelonghaulifthoseelementsaren’tpartoftheDNA.
W〆hatyoucandoiscreatetheconditionsfbrtransfbrlnation.Youcanprovideincen-
tives.Youcandefinethemarketplacerealitiesandgoals,Butthenyouhavetotrust.
ln
魚ct,intheend,managementdoesdtchangeculture.M[anagementinvitesthework]ぬrce
itselftochangetheculture.
Whatarethe mainthreatstothesustainabilityofchange? Buchanan etal.(2007)
identi~thetopten 魚ctorsthatcanleadtoinitiativedecay:
1. 77乃e殻mqzorsα刀dd“泌な move の?・ハイ[anagerswhohavebeensuccessf11latimplement-
ingchange maybemoreinterestedin movingontothenextchangechallengeth
an
in
staying
around
食)r
aperiod
ofrelative
stability.ln
addition,experienced
and
358
ChaPte「11
溌郡rの′7′′7gCソ7α′7geyeなz俗五7所研かe上そcの’
successfulchangeagents maybesoughtbyotherdivisionsororganizations,which
haveothernovelchangeagendastoprogress.ltcanbedifficulttoturndownpromo‐
tion opportunitiessuchasthese.
2.4cm班加凋めノ角rdeye/op〃7の7Z加s虎mmeα切先′se.Theresponsibi且ty危rdrivingchange
isnormally(butnotalways)clear,with あrmalchangeorprQiect managementroles,
o賃en‐accomPaniedbysteeringgrouPs,task云orces,andimP1ementationteallls,0nce
thechangesareinplaceandoperational,thoseindividualsandgroupsreturnto
their
normーa1ro1es. There
are
change managers,but
organiZations
tend notto appoint
”sustainability managers.
”justwhoisaccountable化)rensuringthatthechangesare
nowembedded,thattheybecomethenew norm,isoftenunclear,
3, 脇の”ノ/e屯eq′7dexpe′・Ze〃cell魔力〃e”望m mces のe/oszz毎・oz′gAszqげれ′mover,Sta茸train‐
ing and developmentprogramsusuallysupportchangeinitiativesthatinvolve
new
skillsandknowledge.Everyone whoisgoingtobealnヨectedwiube宜lvitedtoattend
theseprograms,creatinga”criticalmass“ofParticipants恥rtrainingsessions,How-
ever,asindividualssubsequentlyleaveandarereplaced,itmaybedi土ficulttorepeat
thosedeveloPmentsessions食)rsmallnumbersofparticipants,Theknowledgethatis
lostwhensta賃 membersleaveistherelbrenotreplaced.
4. αd 加るZなαre/′加orzedly肋 recr頑な方.o′77/ess の′7αmにo増α〃ZzqrZom.Linkedto 魚ctor
3,newrecruitsbringwiththem habitsand worldngpractices丘om previouseiゴロploy-
ers. onceagain,theyareunlikelytobeo”ヨeredretraining,butinsteadexpected
to
learn new practices
“onthejob”byobservation,Thelikelihoodofinitiativedecay
thusincreaseswiththenumーbersofnewrecruits,
5,77乃eZss”esα′7dP′・ess“戸es 的の かZggered 豹eZ刀顔のれ’eαre′70/o′?geryZs汐/e.Aswedis‐
cussedinchapter3,organizationsusuallychangeinresponseto acombination
of
internalproblems,externalenvironmentalchallenges,and new opportunities,Those
triggers,however, may notbedurable;the problemsaresolved,thechallengesare
addressed,theopportunitiesaredeveloped.Therationale食)rchangecanthus 魚de
withthetriggers,andagainleadtoinitiativedecay.
6. Mellノmq′?αgeな wm7rrodパlie豹eZrol′-ノ′7αge′?〆α品 Forpersonalsatislaction,visibility,and
reputation,newly appointed managers
o賃en wantto appeartobeinnovative
and
energetic andto“makea marr ontheirnew organization,This meansenhancing
theircareersbydesigningandimplementingtheirownchangeinitiatives.Continuing
with workthatwasstartedbyothersislessinterestingandsatis ingandcouldlimit
one’spromotionprospects.
7. 月owe魂”sねた欲メメeなαre”s!′7gcozmre′Lあり/e〃7e′?超“o′7Z解放szo 劫o欲 prog〆ess,Suc‐
cessfulimplementationdoesnotalwayssilencethepowerbrokers,They mayremain
i
ntheirposts,andiftheydidnotwelcomethechanges,they maywaitあropportu-
nitiestounderminethechanges.Thisbecomeseasierif魚ctorlapplies;theinitiators
arenolongertheretoprotecttheirchanges.
8. 刀7epz〃’切妻“′?7Z′?gル′?dZ′?gr班7so班,Manychangesareanocatedadditional鏡ndingto
supporttheimplementation costs.Thiscanincludethetemporaryappointmentof
specialiststa音 orexternalconsultantsandthecostoftrainingprogramsto provide
new
skills
and
k
llowledge, As
those
resources
are
consumed
andthetemporary
appointmentsandthetrainingcometoanend,supportあrthechangesisweakened
andinitiativedecaybecomesmorelikely.
ChaPterll
及ぼrの“′′7gCみの唯ever雅俗方?〃ね”兜Deじの’
359
9. ○豹erPrZor/『Zes の′?7eo刀szrmm,dZve汀鯛g の云釧”○“α′?〆 形sα‘たes. M[ostorganizations
todaydonotsu爺erashortageofinternalandexternalpressures 危rchange.As
other
urgentProblemsand opportunitiesarise,thefbcusinevitablyshi宣s awayfrom Past
Pressuresandthechangesthatthose Prom‐Pted.lfthosepastProblemshaveindeed
beenaddressed,thenitmaybeaPProPriate危rattentionandresourcesto moveto
more
urgentissues.However,thisw皿generateProblemsifthesh出 血fbcustonewPriorities
smlplyrecreatesthesituationthatPastchangeswere 無IP1em‐entedtoaddress.
10. 勘功ザのα〃/eveなszの先“〃/加”ye海”g”e,鯛de川棚s!αsm尤γc加〃gぎ危庇な.TheexPeri‐
ence,orthePercePtion,of“too much change,
”successFulornot,canthreatensus‐
tainabilitybygeneratingadesireto“
getbacktonormaL”lnitiativedecaycanresult
when managementdoesnotPayattentiontothePaceandtimingofthechanges
that
sta賃areexpectedtodealwithandgenerateburnoutandinitiative魚tiguebyattemPt-
ingtodrivetoo manychangestooraPidly.
lnitiativedecaycanbecausedbymany 魚ctors,atdifiョerentlevelsofanalysis.Several
ofthose 魚ctors maybeoPeratinginagivencontextatanyonetime.lntheabsenceof
Proactive managementstePsto addressthose 魚ctors,initiativedecay,andnotsustained
change,maybethenorm.
′L両曹司
Praiseworthy and B1ameworthy Failures
The危ilureofanintended changeisnotalwaysaProblem thatneedsto besolved.A
changecan 魚ilbecauseit wasinaPPropriate 恥rsomereason, Marksandshaw(1995)
ar隊lethat“
Productive危ilure”isvaluable,ifanorganizationhasthecaPacitytoaddthe
learningftomsuchexperiencestoitsstoreoflqlowledge,ratherthantoconductawitch
hunttofindwhomtoblame.A1earningorganizationtreatsoccasionalfailureasnatural
andasanoPPortunitytodeveloPabetterunderstandmgandtoi面IProveFuturePer危rmance.
Marksandshaw(1995)alsoarguethatanorganizationmaygainmoreinthelongterm
丘om aProductive 魚ilurethan 丘om an”unProductivesuccess”ーachangethathasgone
well,butnobodyquitekllowswhy:“駅′emustbedoingsomethingright.
“
somechanges,iftheydonotmeettheirintendedgoals,mustthere危rebeallowed
to
decay.M[ostorganizations,however,dotreatsuch “魚ilures” harshly. Those who
wereresponsible mayevenbePunishedinsome mannerandPerhapsfindthattheir
careeropPortunitieshavebecome morelimited.lnchaPter3,wediscussedthe
work
ofAmyEd‐mondson(2011,P.50),who describesasPectrum ofreasonsfor魚ilure
(seetablell.2),from blameworthyatonee×treme,topraiseworthyatthe
other,
Not
all
these
錠ilure
modes
concern
change, but
those
that
do
are
morelikely to
be
Praiseworthy.
Ddostmanagers,Edmondsonargues,donotdistinguishblameworthy丘om Praiseworthy
像ilures,treatingthemallequally.ThisisnothelpFul,andisPotentially wasteFul:
VVhen1aske×eCutiVestoconsiderthissPeCtrumandthentoestimーatehOW manyofthe
態iluresintheirorganizationaretrulyblameWorthy,theiranswersareusuallyinsingle
digits-perhaps2%to5%.ButWhenlaskhow manyaretreatedasblameWorthy,theysay
(a化eraPauseoralaugh)70%to90%.Theun貴ortunateconsequenceisthatmany魚辻ures
gounrePortedandtheばlessonsarelost,(Edmondson,2011,P.50)
360
CI1aPterll
位′瀞の′7′′7gC,7の7geyeな”s力7粥のかe上)ecの’
ln
2001,McDonald’sopenedtwofour‐starGolden
Arch
hote
-s
in
switzerland.They were
distinctive,
witha24‐hourMcDonald’srestaurantattachedand
rooms
with
a
patented
curved
wall,arch-shaPed
headboards,andacylindrical,see‐throughshower
(thatwaspartiallyinthebedroom).Theidea
had
been
proposed
by
the
McDonald’s
switzer1and
chairman,UrsHammer,inresponsetoapushfrom
the
parent
com
pany
fordiversification
and
new
ideas・
Thehotelswerenotafinancialsuccess.There
wereproblemswiththeinteriordesign(lackofpri-
vacy
in
the
shower), and
the
phrase
”golden
arches“;s
not associated
with
MCDonald’s
in
German‐speakingcountries(italsodidn’thelpthat
”arch,
“
when
pronounced
by
German
speakers,
soundedーikeavulgarGermanwordforposterior),
Aーso,and
more
importantーy,although
the
restau-
rantventure madeuseofmanyofthe
company’s
core
competencies
in
areas
such
asfranchising
and
reaー
estate
management,the
McDonald’s
TABLE11,2
ASpectrumofReasons角rFailure
Reason
Description
De“Qnce
AnindMduaIChoosest。vioーateaPrescribedProcessorPractice・
書
′nmremon
AnindMdualinadvertentlydeviatesfromsPecifications.
話
Lockofob班夢
Anindividualdoesn’thavetheskills,cpnditio
Process′nodequ口cy,
AcomPetentindividuaーadherestoaPrescribedbutfaultyorincomP1ete
Process,
Anindividualfacesatasktoodifficulttobeexecutedreliablyeverytime,co 卿
↑
卿cesscom 蜘 AProcesscomPosedofmanyelementsbreaksdownwhen-tencounter
interactions,
Uncerfo′nfy
A1ackofclarityaboutfutureeventscausesPeoP1etotakeseemingly
‐
g
reasonableactionsthatProduceundesiredresults.
窃.
HMPofhes′熊srmg
A醐 園imemcmd唖ed 岬 馴 輔 細ni鰯 筋 幽ignwi=
…
succeedfails.
き
Exp′orotorytes土中g
AnexPerimentconductedtoexpandknowledgeandinvestigateaPossibility
{
-eadstoanundesiredresult.
brand
simp-ydidn’tworkwhen
appliedto
afour‐
starhotel,
However, international marketing
professor
stefan Michel(2007)arguesthatthedecisionby
McDonald’stopi-otthisinitiativewasnotasbizarre
asitseemed,Forexample:(1)diversifying
into
hotelsgaveMcDonald’sachancetotestthemulti-
bilーion‐dollar
restaurant
industry;(2)itrequired
whatwasarelativelysma=investmentforMcDon-
ald’s;(3)thedamagetotheMCDonaldsbrandwas
limitedthroughtheuseofthenameGoldenArches
andrestrictingtheexperimenttoswitzerland;and
(4)thelossesonrealestateandoperations were
in
significant
in
reーation
tothe
overa=
McDonald’s
business, Most
significantly,the
venture
was
a
statement
ofsupport
for
entrepreneurial
ideas
withinthecompany,andtheoutcomewastreated
asan
important,and
relativelyinexpensive,learn-
lngexper-ence,
BasedonMichel(2007).
ChaPterll
s”s如力7′′?gc月q′?ge・’g′”s方7”′””ve上)ecロン
361
Changesthat絹江canthere食)rebevaluable,discouragmgfurthere×Perilrlentsofthatkjmd
andreveal血g whatadjustments maybenecessaryto makethenextattemptsuccessful.mo
buildsuchalearningculture,e×Perimentationshouldbeencouraged,and魚ilures(including
nearmisses)needtobedetectedandsu萌ectedtoananalysisthatlooksbeyondtheobvious,
ltisalsonecessarytoavoidmakjingthe”Fundamentalattributionerror,
”which meansblam-
ingindividualsandignoringthecontextin whichthey wereworking(Ross,1977).
Basedonexperienceatachildren’shospitalinMinnesota,Edmondson(2011,pp.52‐53)
describesfivepractices食)rbuildinga‘‘
Psychologicallysa熊environment”inwhichtolearn
丘om 魚ilures:
1. 月mme 豹ewo靴 αcc“川解か.Peopleneedasharedunderstandingofthekindsof錠ilures
thatcanbeexpectedto occurinagiven workcontext(routineproduction,complex
operations,orlnnovation)and whyopennessandcollaborationareimportant危rsuト
魚cingandlearning丘omthem,Accurate丘amingdetoぬfies魚ilure,
2.Emゎmce′77esse′?gers.Thosewhocome免rwardwithbadnews,questions,concerns,or
mistakesshouldberewardedratherthanshot.Celebratethevalueofthenewsfirst,
andthenfigureouthowtofiXthe飽ilureandlearn 丘omit.
3.4cあの}〆edge/““!な.Beingopenaboutwhatyoudon’tkllow,mistakesy
o
u
’ve made,and
whatyoucan’tgetdonealonewillencourageotherstodothesame.
4.膚粥ePα汚れ夢のZo“.Ask云〔)robservationsandideas,andcreateopportunities食)rPeople
to detectandanalyze 魚iluresand promoteintelligentexperiments.lnvitingparticipa-
tionhelpsdeFuseresistanceandde危nsiveness.
5.Sezわozmdqr!esq〃〆月メメpeop/eαcのzmzq劫e.Paradoxically,people元elpsychologically
sa発r whenleaders
are
clearabout whatacts
areblameworthy,A0dthere mustbe
consequences.Butifsomeoneispunishedorfired,tellthosedirectlyandindirectly
a爺ected whathappenedandwhyitwarrantedblame.
杯/ill
adoPtingsuch a“so賞” and “
understanding
” managementapproachto 危ilures
makestaffmorecarelessandencourage more mistakes?Edmondson(2011,p.55)argues
thata 魚ilureto encourageexperimentation,combined witha 魚iluretolearn 丑omthe
inevitablemistakes,posesgreaterriskstoorganizationalchangeande爺ectiveness.Change
initiativesthatdonotworkcannotbesustained.However,ifmanagementwantstosustain
thegeneration offurther newideas食)r
change,then those who
develoP praiseworthy
態iluresshouldberecognizedandrewarded,andnotblamedandpunished,
Findon裟刈れ′be,
”Buiーdingapsychologica=ysafeWorkplace:AmyEdmondsonTEDXHGSE”(2014ゴー:26
minutes).
圏霊園園 Actionsto Sustain Change
Vvhatactionswillincreasetheprobabilitythatchangewillbesustained?No
specific
setofstepscan guaranteesuccess,butawarenessofthethreatstosustainability
can
leadtotimelyandeflもctiveresponses.Actiontosecuresustainabilityiso仕enidenti-
fiedasthefinalpointinthe“changerecipes
”that we discussedin
chapter
lo,For
362
Chapterll
sよぼ′”′′7′′?gc′7の?ge・’gな”sみ7′′′”“1,eDemy
En・ilyLawsonandColinPrice(2003)argueth
atthe
successandsustainabilityofchangereーyon
peo-
plethinkingdifferentーyabouttheirjobs,and
not
justonpe「suadingthemtochangethe waythey
Work,ThisisparticularlythecaseWithfunda
mental
changes
to
organizational
culture,for
example,
fromreactivetop「oactive,fromhie「archicaltocol‐
legial,from
introspective
to
externally
focused.
Therearefourconditionsforthenecessarychange
inmindsets.
First,thosewhoareaffectedbyachangeneedto
understandthepurpose,andagreewithit,Thereis
no
pointin
managementtelling
peoplethatthings
mustbedonedifferent1y:”Anyoneーeading
a
major
changeprogram musttaketimetothinkthrough
its
example,
”institutionalize new approaches
”is step
8in Kotter’s(2007)eight‐step
modeloftransFormationa1change, However,sustainability dependsnotjuston what
h‐aPpens
a代er
ilnーP1ementation,but
also
on the
cumulative
ef元cts
ofdecisions
and
actions
duringthe
change process.1n
other Words,itis
more
e”ョectiveto
plan おor
sustainability丘omthebeginningthantoregardthisasanissuethatcanbele賞until
alaterstage.
Here
are
eight
sets
ofactionsthat
should be
considered when designinga change
initiative,tobuildsustainabilityintotheProcessfromthebeginning,oratleast丘om an
earlystage.
Redesign Roles
organizationalchange,particularly wherenew structures,processes,andtechnologies
areinvolved,oftenleadstotheredesignofeXistingrolesandtothecreationofnew
ones.However,theserolechangesmaybeacriticaldimensionoftheprocess,andnot
justaproductofchange,Beeretal,(1990)arguethat mostchangeprogramsdonot
work becausethey 化)cus
on attemptsto
change
attitudes
andbelie超 byintroducing
new perspectives,Theassumptionthatunderpinsthisapproach,thatchangesinbehav‐
Iorwi11Fo11owchangesinattitudes,isintheirView fundamenta11yf1awed,Thecausa1
arrow,they
suggest,runs
in
the
opposite
direction, Behavior
is
influenced
bythe
contextin which
peoplefindthemselves-bytheirresponsibilities,relationships,and
roles.lnshort,firstredesignroles,whichrequirenew behaviors,andattitudechange
will
then
Follow.1t
is
difficult
to
revert
to
past
behavior
with a
new
formal
role
‘story’--Whatmakesitworthundertaking-andtoe
plainthatstorytoallofthepeopleinvolvedinmak-
ingchangehappen,sothattheircontributionsmake
sensetothemasindividualぎ(p.33),
Second,rewardand「ecognitionsystemsneedto
be
consistent
withthe
new
behaviors.Third,staff
musthavethenecessaryski=sandbegiventimeto
absorbnewinformation,linkthattoexistingknowl-
edge,andapplyiteffectivelyinpractice.
Andfinally,
“they mustseepeopletheyrespect
mode”ingitactively“(p.32).Wealltendto model
ourbehavioron
”significantothers“and
especia=y
thoseininfluentialpositions,Managersata=1eveーs
thusbecomerolemodelsandmust”Walkthetaーk“if
mindsetsaretochange(p,35).
ChaPterll
&′sm′′7′′7gC/7の増eye離婚力7mm′1ぞ )ecqi
363
Reflecting
on
his
experience
of
the“momentum
busters”thatderaiーedtransformationalchangeinthe
U.S.PostaIService,RobertReisner(2002,pp.51-52)
identifies”fourhard
lessons”fororganizations
un-
dertakinga majorchangeinitiativeinaturbulent
economicenvironment:
1. Don’tm′ssyourmoment.肌′e missed
numerous
market
opportunities
thatcompetitors
such
as
UPSseized.Furthermore,weーetpassatleasttwo
chancesto
capitalize
oll
high
morale
and
mo‐
mentum withinthePostaIService,momentsthat
providedthebestopportunitytoovercomeorga-
nizationalresistancetochange.
2. connectchonge′〃′t′or′VestoyourcorebUs′ness.
Mostoftheinnovativeprogramswelaunchedto
boostrevenueexistedatthefringesofourbusi‐
ness.Andweneverestablishedapathforthem
tomigratetotheheartofouroperations.
3. Don’t
m′stoke
′ncremento′
′mprovemenfs
f
io「
stroteg′ctmnsわ「mot′on.[0]urtremendoussuccess
ln1mprovingdeliverytimes,whichweenthusias‐
tically
celebrated,blinded
us
to
the
need
for
strategicchange.Foratime,weslippedintocom-
pーacency,ignoring
our
competition
and
chaー-
lengesand
dec1aring
ourselvesthe winnerln
a
racewithourselves,
βe
reo/′st′coboutyour/′m′ts
ondthePoce
of
cわonge,[1]nachangeinitiative,itisimportantto
identifywhichobstaclesareinyourcontro1and
whicharen’t.Someofwhatwewantedtodomay
simply
not
have
been
possible,atleast
atthe
time....W′hilesomeofourconstraints-ourreg-
u1atoryframework,ifnotourverysizeandcom-
pーexity.‐arespecifictous,everyorganization
has
limitsofonekindoranother,ltmayseemhereti-
caltosaysointhecan-doeilvironmentofAmeri-
canbusiness,butsometimesyouneedtoaccept
those
-imits.Afailureto
acknowledgethat
you
sometimescon’rdocertainthingscanbreeddis-
couragementandcynicism,ultimatelyundermin-
ingthosechangeinitiativesthatareachievable.
definiti0n,whichis○ne0fanetw○rk‐○fsimilarlyredeSignedr○les.SustainabilityiSn○t
guaranteedbythisapproach butissignificantlyencouraged.
Redesign Reward Systems
Beerand Nohria(2000,p,267)alsoobservethat“there arevirtuallyno 飽ndamental
changesinorganizationsthatd‐o notalsoinvolvesomechangesintherewardsystem.
“
Thisisoneconsequenceofredesigningrolesandresponsibilities.Fisher(1995,p.122)
citestheexampleoflntegra Financial,a$14billion(inassets)bankholdingcompany
thatwas恥rmedthroughamerger.Toreinあrcethecompanyscommitmenttoateamwork
initiative, managementimplemented acarefullydesignedevaluation andreward system
“to
discourage hot‐dogging,grandstanding,filibustering,and otherego games” andto
ensurethat”thebestteamP1ayersgetthegoodiesおFisher(1995,p.122)alsonotes,
”〇ne
thingthatyoucancounton:”/hatevergetsrewarded willgetdoneおThisalsomeansthat
whateverisnotrewarded(suchaspre‐changeworkingpractices)willnotgetdone,Chang
ingtherewardsystem canthuscontributesignificantlytosustainabilitybyremovingthe
financialmotivationtoreturntooldbehaviors,
364
ChaPterll
S”s如力?′′7gC,7口′?ge-’e′s”s方7′′′mn’e 〉eαリノ
Rewardsshouldalsoincludepublicrecognition ofbehaviorsthatareconsistentwith
thedesiredchange.Thisbothrein化)rcesindividualbehaviorandsendsstrongsignalsto
others,TheopPositealsoapP1ies,M[anage].lent
’s魚iluretoresPondtobehaviorthatisin
directoppositiontothechangeunderminesthecredibilityoftheprogram,Lackofaction
inthisrespectcanincreaserapidlytherateofinitiativedecay,The organization
’spay
system canthussupportorderailachangeinitiative,
Linkse1ectionto Change objectives
Sta甘selection,and promotion processes,canbesubtlebutpowerfulwaysin whichto
embedandsustainassumptionsandvalues-tochangeandto maintaintheorganizatioぱs
culture,Aswiththerewardssystem,appointmentsandpromotions,particularlytokey
andinfluentialroles,havesymbolicsignificanceinsignamng whethertop
management
reallysupporta change,ornot. A singleinappropriateseniorappointmentduringthe
change process
can
quickly derailalltheimplementation workthathas
already been
undertaken.
1o
support organizational
changes with
selection,a number oforganizations have
adopted
“values-basedrecruitmenぞ
systems, which
seekto
select
sta賃 whose motives,
attitudes,andvalues
support whatthe
organizationistryingto
achieve,Forexample,
Rapping(2009)describesavalues‐basedrecruitment,training,and mentoringprogram
あrselectingand developingpublicde免nderstorepresentpoorclientsincriminalcases
in Georgia,Poordefendantso代enhaveproblems6‐ndinglavyers,whothenrefusetovisit
theminiail,Tochangethistraditionalculture,recruitmentand selection changedto
emphasizevaluesrelatingtoenthusiasticandloyalrepresentation,advocatingtheclient’s
cause,studyingandpreparingthecase,andcommunicatingwiththeclient,
官iggeredby魚iluresinqualityofsocialcareinthe UK,Goode(2014)describesa
values-basedrecruitmenttoolkittohe・pemployerstofindpeoplewithvalues
appropriate
to workinginthissector.Thistoolkitincludessamplejobadvertisementsandan online
personalityprofningquestionnaireandsuggestedvalues-based 血terviewquestionssuchas:
“VVhatexcitesyouaboutworldnginadultsocialcare?““Canyougiveanexampleofwhere
your understanding
ofwhat
anotherperson maybegoingthrough hashelpedyouto
develop yourcompassion 長)rthatperson?
” and”Tell me aboutatime when you have
‘
gonetheextra mile’atwork,
”Theanswerstothese鮪Lndsofquestionsrevealcandidates’
behaviorandtheirvalueswithregardtocareandcompassion,
W′alktheTalk
Thisisa well-kllown cHche. However,senior managementcan seriouslyjeopardizethe
sustainabilityofchangeiftheirwordsandactionsareinterpretedbyemployeesassignal‐
ling,
“帆/edon’treally meanit.
“ln other words,ifthetopteam doesnotsupportthis
change,whyshould we?Littleismoredamagingtothecredibiutyofachangeprogram
thanalackofconsistencybetweenthestatementsandbehaviorsofthechangeadvocates.
Evenifmanagementdidnotmeantosendnegativesignals,
”unintentionalhypocrisy
”can
beequallydamaging(Fisher,1995),
one
indicator
ofconsistency
concerns
changes
in
management practices
that
are
clearlyalignedwiththegoalsofthechange.Forexample,whoispraisedandpromoted
andwhy?lsmanagemententhusiasticallyadvocatingteamworkwhilestinrewardingindi‐
vidualperあrmance?
W〆here
areresources-finance,sta茸ing,expertise-beingallocated?
ChaPterll
s”s数′用′?gc力α′?ge・’eな”s方7中α”・’eDecαγ
365
EarlyinhistimeaschiefexecutiveatProcter&Gamble,
communicating
the
messagethat
innovation
was
A1an
Lafley
had
to
decide
whether
to
aPProve
a
p&G’slifeblood.LafleydescribeshisresPonse:”so
majormarketingefforttolaunchseveralnewprod-
welockedarmsandwewentahead.lhadtomake
ucts.Thiswou-drequireasignificantcommitmentof
choices
liketheseto
convince
P&G managers
we
funds,andp&Ghadjustmissedearningstargetstwo
vveregoingtogoforwinning“(Guptaand Wendler,
quartersinarow,ButLafleyhadbeenworkinghard
2005,p.4).
Thecommitmentofresourcesto aninitiativeinsuch a waythatto withdraw would
beextremely costly conveys unambiguous managementsupport(seethebox“A1an
Lafley’s MomentofTruth“),風lthese managementdecisionsandactionshavesym-
bolicas wellastangiblee掻ects.Schein(2010)arguesthat managerssignal whatis
importantby whattheysystematically payattentionto.
”Co]mmーunication”isnot
con-
finedto conversations, meetings,presentations,and emails,butincludesallmanage-
mentactions-and omissions-thatsend signalsconcerning goalsandpriorities(and
wehavealsotorecognizethatthosesignalsmayormaynotbeinterpretedinthe manner
that managementintended),
Encourage Voluntary Acts oflnitiative
Kotter(2012)emphasizesthevalueofhaving manychangeagentsinanorganization,and
notjustasmalleliteteam,arguingthatvision andstrategyshouldbecomnounicatedin
a waythatcreatesbuyinand attractsagrowing
“volunteerarmy”(p.52).Fromtheir
studyofchangeins似 corporations, Beeretal,(1990)concludethatin encouraglng
change,the moste]ぼectivesenlor managersspecifiedthegeneraldirectioninwhichthey
wantedthecompanyto move,andleftthedetailsofspecificchangestobedecided”closer
totheaction,
”lowerdownintheorganization.They化’undthatchange was morelikely
tobecomeembeddedifthoseattheoperationallevelweresupportedwhentheydeveloped
For
themselves
the
specific
changes
that
they
believed
appropriate
貴)r their
local
circumstance.
Measure Progress
A あcuson measurementisimportant危rtworeasons.First,metricsand milestonesare
fundamentaltotrackingtheprogressofchange,highlightingtheneedfbranycorrective
action.Second,whatgets measuredcansignificantlyaぼecthow peopleact,becausemea-
surementsignalstheimportanceofthataspectofperあrmance.Lessattentionispaidto
dimensionsofperformancethatarenot measured.From asurveyofthechangeexperi-
encesofover2,00oexecutives,Ghislanzonietal.(2010,p.8)found‐thattwoofthe
top
6‐veproceduresusedbyorganizationswhosechangeshadbeensuccessfulwere“defining
detailed
metrics
f
brreorganizatio亘s
e鎖ect
on
short-
andlong-term perあrmance
and
assesslng progressagainstthem” and “usingdetailedplan,splitinto workstreams with
milestones 危rdeliveryandsomeoneaccountable 危rreachingeach.
” Progress measu
re-
mentisthusimportantbothfbrimplementationand 危rsustainability.
366
ChaPterll
s”射”粥粥gC力α′7ge、’eな”s五7″′研かe上)ecのノ
ltisimportantto choose appropriate metrics(seethebox“Change Metrics:
The
Continental 亙rlines Experience“),David Nadler(1998)arguesthatorganizations
should carry outacomprehensive Progresscheckon majorchangeinitiatives within
si× monthsa貴erthey havebegun,andthen annuallytherea先er.Thesechecksshould
usequantitativeperおorl土lance measures,attitudesurveys,Focusgroups,andindividual
interviews. Kanteretal.(1992)suggestthattwokindsof measures are particularly
helpful,First,resz′肱 川eqsz′res:How willwe 数lowthatwehaveachievedouro防ectives?
Second,″mcess“だα麗‘res: 日ow wilIWeknow that We aredoing whatisnecessaryto
achievethoseobjectivesandhowplansmayneedtobeadjusted?ThePrice Waterhouse
ChangelntegrationTeam(1995)arguesthatabalancedsetofperfbrmance measures
shouldinclude;
・ Leαメカぼ ′“eα劃″8品
which revealtheimmediate
results
ofa new initiative,such
as
changesinprocessingtime,ortimeto market貴)rnew products
・ Lqg郡力gmeα鱒‘〆es,suchas負nancialperまた)rmanceandcorporateimage,whichcantake
timetobecomeapparent
・ Z)7『er′?”/′?7eαs“だs,貴)cusingonintra‐organizationalprocessesande賃iciencies
・ E尤Zer刀α/′77eqs,”だs,suchastheperspectiVesofstakeholders,customers,andsuppliers,
andhowtheorganizationcompareswithbenchmarkcompetitors
・ Cosbαsedmeqs”res,whicharedifectlyfinancial
・ 鮎o′?cD財′”eαsz!res,suchas marketshareandbrandimage
Exercise
ll,l
asks youto
applythese
measuresto
a current
changein your own
organizationortoonewithwhichyouare態miliar.Doallthese measuresapply?lfnot,
whynot?
Ce1ebrate En Route
M[onthsoryearscan passbe危retheoutcomesofachangeinitiativearefullyrealized,
Thoseinvolvedexpecttoseeevidencethattheire節ortsarerewarded.A1ackofclearevi-
denceofsuccessstrengthenstheviewsofthosewhoinitiallyresistedthechange,Skepticism
concerningthevalueofthechange maythusbeincreasedbydelaysindemonstratingthe
bene行ts,However,itiso負enthecasethatsometangiblebenefitscanbeidenti賃edatan
earlystageintheprocess,Kotter(2012,P,52)thusarguesthatoneofthe“accelerators”
ofchangeistocelebratesigni丘cantshort‐term w超s,Celebratingtheearlybene賃ts,evenif
theyarerelativelysmallinscale,recognizesandrewardsthosewhoareinvolved,strength‐
ensthecredibnityoftheprogram,andhelpsto weakentheskepticism.
lnaddition,thelinksbetween changedsystemsand workingpracticesand organiza-
tionaIPer危rmanceshouldbe madeclear,Sta茸 memberswhohaveto work outthose
links あrthemselves
may not make
accurate
assumptions. APd successes,ifthey are
effectivelypublicizedandwidelyunderstood,canactascatalystsあr鏡rtherchanges(see
thebox“Celebrating Successatsandvir).A 範rtherimplicationofthe あcuson cele
brating“enroute”concernstheallocationofresourcestopriorityareas;thoseareasthat
needthe mosturgentattention mayprovidethebestopportunitiestodemonstrateclear
andimmediatebenefits, which
can then be
celebrated
as
short‐term wins. Failureto
establishthoseprioritiesatan earlystageinthechangeprocess maybeadirect
cause
ofchange魚ilure,
ChaPterlI
S婚姻′′7′′?gc方の7ge・桝罰ぼろ7市研かe上)ecのノ
367
Chnngt・ (lrl〔~
ContinentalwasoneofAmerica’smajorairlinesunti1
2010,WhenitmergedwithUnited.Beforethat,Con-
tinentaーhadtoughtimes,VVhenGordonBethunebe-
camechiefexecutiveofContinentalinl994,ithad
beenlosingmoneyformostofthepreviousdecade,
hadadebt-to‐equityratioof50-to‐1,andhadserved
sometime
in
Chapterll
ofthefederal
bankruptcy
code.Duringthis
period,
Continental
had
empha‐
sizedcompetingonthebasisofcheaperfaresthan
itsmajorcompetitors.However,althoughitachieved
thelowestrevenueperavailableseatmile(ofthe
majorair-ines),italsohadthelowestrevenue
per
availab1eseatmile
and
a
lossoverall.Bethune
re-
flectsonthissituation:
lfirm1ybelievethatwhatyoumeasureiswhatyou
get.This
isan
exampleofacompanythatsaid
thatitcouーdn’tcompetewiththebigboysunlessit
wasabletohavecheaperfares.Thatsetthecuー-
tureandmind‐set.So,wehadaculturethatsaid,
“Costisever)【ヒhing′’That’sthe Holy Grail. We
evenhadpilotsturningdowntheair‐conditioning
and
slowingdownairplanestosavethecostof
fuel.They made
passengers
hot,mad
and
late.
Tharsadysfunctionalmeasure,ameasuresome
accountant
dreamed
up
Who
does
not
under‐
standourbusiness.
BethunerespondedbyinvestigatingWhat
factors
most
influenced
passengers’level
of
satisfaction
Withairlines.Thisreveaーedthaton‐timeperformance
wasthemostsignificantfactor.Unfortunately,atthe
timeofBethune’sarrival,Continentalrankedtenthof
-
thelolargestU.S.carriersonthiscriterion.Nonethe-
less,Bethunechangedthecore metricusedinside
Continentaltoon‐timeperformance:
W′eusethatmeasurefortwo
reasons,onebe‐
causeitisthesing-emostvitalsignofafunction-
ingairline,andtwo,it
’srankedbyourGovernment
andwecan’tscrewthemetrics,
下o
reinforcethe
centralityofthisfactor,a
new
systemofrewardswasestab”shedinwhichbonuses
were
paidtoall
staffeach
monththatContinental
wasrankedinthetopfiveofthelolargestU.S,carri-
ersforon‐timeperformance.Thecostofthebonus
paymentswasmorethancoveredbythereduction
inthe amount--thathad
risento $6 miーlion
per
month-that
Continental
had been
paying
to
put
passengersonotherairlines,putthemupinhotels,
busthemacrosstown,andsoforth.
The
nextmonth,Marchl995,we wound
up
in
firstplace.恥′ehad
neverbeeninfirstplacein
60years.l
mean,Continentaー,the worstcom‐
pany
in
America
forthe
-ast
20years,isfirst
place
in
”ontime“which
isa metriceveryone
kindofunderstands,
Byl996(andagaininl997),Continentalhadwon
theJ.D.Power&Associatesawardforcustomersat‐
isfactionasthebestair1ineforf1ightsof500milesor
more
and
Was
inthetopthree
intermsoffewest
customercomplaintsand
lostbaggage.Froml995
to
l998,Continental’s market
capitalization
rose
from$230millionto$3bi--ion.
CaseSource
Kurtzman,J.1998.Paying
attentionto whatreally
counts,Arfof恥文中9Cho噂e3(1):1-12,Copyright
◎1998」oeIKurtzman.AI1rightsreserved.Used
withpermlsslon.
Fine-Tuning
Despitecarefuladvance planning, mostchangeinitiativesdonotunあldasanticipated.
Theneed危rcorrectiveactionistobeexpected.N1a檀ngtimely modificationsinthelight
ofexperience willnormallybe moree鎖ectivethan attempting notto deviate 丘om the
plan,Problems
arisefbrtwo main reasons.First,by definition,theimplementation of
changealwaysinvolvesdoingsomethingnew,somethingthathasneverbeendonebe危re,
A particulartypeofchangeprogram may,ofcourse,havebeenimplementedinanother
368
ChaPterlI
S″””′′?′′?gC乃”′?gelぞ′”s万7/′mm形上)ecdji
C(.k・1)rntin9 SL1cc〔・~~ ntsnndvi
(・k・1)rntin9 SL1cc〔・~~ ntsnndvi
sandvikAB
makes
advanced
alloys
and
ceramics,
employs42,00opeople,andhassalesin160coun-
tries.VVhenachangeprogramfocusin9onbusiness
processeswasintroduced,someofsandvik’s
units
achieved
significant
improvements,People
from
these
units
then
visited
other
units,particularly
where
there
was
skepticism
about
the
change.
These
visits
spread
knowledge
ofsuccesses
and
helpedotherunitsseewhatimprovementscouldbe
achievedthrou9hthechangeinitiative,Later,whena
keyfinancialtargetwasreached,thiswasacknowl-
edgedbyhavingaphotographtakenofthesandvik
management
team standing
on
top
of
a
piーe
of
division,oranotherorganization-butthatchangewillalwaysbenew here,inthisorgan.-
zation,inthisdivision,atthistilne,食)rthesereasons,withthoseresources,a節ecting。ur
staff.lnotherwords,change managementalwaysinvolves“buildingtheplaneasyouflコ”’
“
anditisnotsurPrisingifParts 魚11off.Second,organizati。nalchangesare multifaceted,
a]mectingmanydi節erent魚ct。rs,whicharethemselvesinterlinked,ltistherelt)redifficult
to anticipateallthe”knockon“eaヨectsor”ripples
,’thatachangeinoneareawinhave
elsewhere.
Forthechange manager,thismeansa‘考ustingandrefiningaspectsoftheimplementa-
tion Process withoutthisbeingseen asan admissionof態ilure.Thiscanbedifficultin
practice,becauseas”wehavelearnedfrom e×perience
”can alsobedescribedas,
“
you
mademistakesintheplanning.
”Thiscanbeaddressedbycommunicatingthe丘ne‐tuning
intermsofconsistencywiththeoriginalgoals,Aswehaven。tedelsewhere,partofthe
change managementresponsibilityistohelpothersto makesense。fwhatishaPpening,
toshapeandtoretellthestory,andtoexP1ainthatthecoreprinciplesthatliebehindthe
changeremainintact.
lnl995,FordMotorcompanyintroducedaseriesof
changes
to
the
way
the company
designed
and
manufactured
its
cars
and
trucks.This
involved
changingfromanexistingfunctionalstructure,con-
so-idatingactivitiesintofivevehiclecenters,andus‐
ing
a
reduced
number
ofplatformsforitsvehicle
range.Afterayearanda
half,seniormanagement
decidedto make modificationsinlightoftheinitial
experience,However,somegroupsandindividuaーs,
bothinsidethecompanyandinthefinancialcommu-
nity,viewedthechangeswithsomeskepticism,Asa
result,whenthetimecametoannouncethemodifi-
cations(forexample,consolidatingfurtherfromfive
tothreevehiclecenters),thecompanypaidalotof
attentionto
making
surethatthefurtherchanges
werepresentedasarefinement,thatis,alogicalad-
justmentcompletelyinkeeping withthespiritand
intentoftheoriginalchange(Nadler,1988).
gravel.However,accordingtosandvikPresidentPe‐
ter
Gossas,
”VVhen
we
looked
at
the photo
we
thought,
‘es,successshouldbecelebratedbuthey,
thisisthewron9message′Soweaddedfivebigger
pilestosymbolizemountainswehaveyettoclimb”
(AhlbergandNaucー6r,2007,p.4).
caseSources
Ahlberg,J.,and Naucler,T.2007.Leadingchange:
Aninten′iewwithsandvik,SPeterGossas.ハイ7cにmsey
Qリorfer夕,January:1-
3,
https://www,home.sandvik(2019),
Chapterll
s〃srα粥粥gC/m′?gel勿”s力7mm′1’eDecの’
369
TABLEI1.3
M[anagingthelmprovementEvaporation霧f発ct
Actions
SustainabilityCautions
ustainability“meansinyourcontext
Donotdefersustainabilityplanning,assomemodes
timescale.
ofdeVelopmentandchangeimpーementatlonwill
damagesustainability.
tors(contextual,temporal,
Donotexpectchangestosurvivebecausetheyare
,poーiticaー)thataffectthesustainability
now working;staffleave,resourcesarereallocated,
sinyourcontext.
novelideasbecomefamiliar.
atcombinationoffactorsyoucan
Donotignoretheriskfactors;ifyouareunableto
justtoincreasetheprobabiーityof
sustainsuccessfuIChanges,thatwillreducethe
nge.
probabilityofothersitesadaptingtheapproachand
jeopardizefuturechanges.
pportconditionsandimplementan
Donotalloweffortstosustainchangetoblockthe
ixofpreventiveanddevelopmental
developmentofothergoodideas.
uragechangestodecaywhentheyno
Donotwithdrawpreventiveanddevelopmental
0ntextorWhenbettermethods
maintenanceaslongasyouwishtheapproachto
ble.
besustained.
tOSurVI
e,resOU
Source:BasedonBuchananetal.(2007).
lnthissection,wehavediscussedeightsetsofactionstoconsiderwhendesigninga
changeinitiative,tobuildsustainabilityintotheProcess丘omthebeginning,oratleast
丘om anearlystage.Theseincluderedesignroles,redesignrewardsystems,linkselection
toorganizationalo鰯ectives,walkthetalk,encouragevoluntaryactsofinitiative,measure
Progress,celebrateenroute,andfine‐tuning,Finally,basedonastudybyDavidBuchanan
etal,(2007)oftheU‐K NationaIHealthService,oneofthelargestemP1oyingorganiza‐
tionsintheworld,table
ll.3summarizeskeysustainability
‘‘actionsandcautions.
“This
researchemphasizesthatsustainabilityreliesonlocalmanagementjudgement,andontwo
mainFormsofaction:PreventiVe maintenanceanddeveloPmentalmaintenance,fireve月ZZve
mの“だ刀α刀鑑 involves
action to
sustain the
status
quo,to keeP
neW working Practices
operatingasintended,andto meetPredeterminedtargetsand o覇ectives,Deveわ要men超/
mα粥ze“α刀ceinvolvescontinuingto adaPtthechangestolocalcircumstancestosustain
animprovementtr可ectory,toexceedexPectations,andto meethighertargets.Preventive
maintenancesustainsthechanges;develOPmental maintenancebothsustainsandbuilds
onthebenefits.
窯0縞園 W′ordsof「Warning
ltcanbediITicultto managesustainabilitya代erachange hasbeensuccessfullyimP1e-
mented;bythen,itmaybetoolate.Buildingsustainabilityintoachangeinitiative丘om
thebeginning Provides
no
secure guarantees,butitis
morelikelyto
be
an
e”ヨective
aPproach.However,thereareanumberoffurther魚ctorsaboutwhichthechangemanager
needstobeaware.
370
ChaPterll
Sz′s超′′7′′?gC/70′?ge・’甥s”sム7mdr′-’eDec(幻ノ
Expectthe Unantici
pated
M[ostchangej中止tiativesw皿generateunanticiPatedconsequences,u〕messthel血ksbetweenthe
changesandoutcomesarecontroUableandPredictable(w垣chisrare),Unanticipatedconse
quencesmaybePositiveandsupportthechangeProcess.Fore×ample,sta甘 maydemonstrate
greaterlevelsofenthusiasm andco立山nitmentto makj鴎gthechangesworkthan wasin亘tially
anticipated;costsaving maybehigherthanP1armed;processingtholesmaybecutmoredra-
matically.〇ntheotherhand,supportmaybe more出血tedthanexPected,caus無gdisruption
anddelay;costsav血gs maynot materialize;tmlesavi中gs maybe minimal, Unanticipated
outcomesarenotnecessa証yasignofmanagement魚ilure;incomple×changeProcesses,the
unexpectedistobee文Pected.NoamountofcareFuIPreplann血gis]股elytoovercomethis,
Thechange managementchallengeistoresPondintimelyandapPropriatewaystothe
unexPected,which,onsomeoccasions,maybeearlywarningsofmoreseriousProblems,
requlr・ngacombinationofresilienceandimprovisation.
U11nnti(iPnに・d con~甑 胆g1IC手・~霊、
tFg馬IE
FederaIExpress(FedEx)introducedanew aircra
ft
routingsystem withtheintentionofincreasingthe
productivityofits
pilots,Morepowerful
computers
and
developments
in
scheduling
a1gorithms
made
thisseemfeasible,theestimatedsavingsinthehun‐
dredsofmillionsofdollarsmadeitattractive,andthe
piーotshadarecordofsupportingmeasuresintended
toimprovecompetitiveefficiencies,
However,thingsdidnotworkoutasplanned,The
newsystem
producedflightplansthatrequired
pi-
ーotstocrossthetimezonesoftwohemispheres,un-
dertakeback‐to‐backtrans‐Pacificandtrans‐At-antic
flights,andspendhourstravellingbylandtochange
aircraft.EffortsbyFedExtoimprovetheworkingof
thenewsystemfailedtoproduceanyimprovement,
Bewarethe Limitations of Measurement
Thebenefitsderived 官om new waysofdoingthings(onlinecustomersatis魚ction,brand
image,andreputation) may notimmediatelybereflectedintraditional measures(sales
Persquare 危ot,stockturnover, marketshare).Thecredibilityofa newidea maybe
threatenedifitdoesnotsucceedonestablishedcriteria.However,inso]mecircumstances,
a change mayberegarded
as
successfuleven wheretheintended aimshave notbeen
met-such asa majorProcessredesigninitiativethatachieved 篤woftheintendedgoals
butthatincreasedthe organization’sreceptivenessto and capacity貴)rfurtherchanges,
Assessingthee”ヨectivenessofchangeistherelbrecomplexandchallenging,
“Premature measurement”can also createProblems,Asdiscussed ear日er,celebrating
short‐term w立lscanbevaluable,but measuringtheoverallsuccessofachangeinitiative
shouldberelatedtothetiln‐escaleoverwhichbene云itsareexpectedtobedelivered,A化)cus
BasedonPascaーeetaL(2000).
Faced
withthe
prospectofa
strike
bythe
pi‐
lots--whichwouldhavebeenthefirstpilotstrikein
the
company’s
history--FedEx
management
re-
lented, and
the
new
scheduling system
was
abandoned.
butthecompanypersistedwiththenewsystem,ln
response,thepilots’union,despitehavingareputa-
tionforcompliancewithmanagementrequirements,
threateneda workstoppa9eifthesystem wasnot
abandoned.Then,havingtakenthisstance,theirde-
mands
extended
to
a
substantial
wage
increase,
fewer
flying
hours, and
improved
retirement
benefits.
Chapterl1
&ノsrq“7′′7gc乃α′?gel’eな”s方7mom’eDecの′
371
onshort‐term gainsandquickfixescan WeakenthePersistenCethatiso賞enrequifedto
achievegainsthatdevelop overalongerperiod.lnaddition,organizationalchangerarely
flowsm alinear錠shion,andtheoutcomestendtobeshapedbythecombination and
interactionofmultiP1e魚ctors.Attimes,changemayappeartobeprogressingrapidly,While
atothertm1es,itmayappeartohaVestaued.1nso]me mstances,performance maydeteri‐
oratebe節reitimproves,aspeoplelearn howtoadjusttoand Work with new structures
systems,procedures,andpractices.Thisinitialdip免11owedbyanuptickinperあrmance
is]blownasthe”}-curve“(seeFigure ロ.1),Thisisalsoknownas”Kanter’slaw’’(chapter
lo),Whichstatesthat“Everythingcanlooklikea魚ilureinthemiddle”(Kanter,2009).
Theshapeofthei‐curve,andthet中lescaleoverwhichitoperates,Walofcoursevary丘om
onesettingtoanother(per恥rmance m砂 notdipinsomecasesand mayneverrecoverln
others).Assessmentofhow we旦achangeisProgressingmustconsidernotonlyWhich metrics
toapply,butalsothet血ロingofthose measurements.Thei‐curvecanbehelp粒lin managmg
theexpectationsofothers,Withregardtojust正yingadeteriorationinperあrmance,andalso
eXP1ai1lingtherateatWhichthebenefitsofthechangeare錠kelytobeComeaPparent.
FIGUREII.I
TheJ‐Curve
orl9inalperformanceleveI
Time
Beware Premature Declaration ofVictory
Embeddingandsustainingorganizationalculturechangecantakeaconsiderableamount
oftime.-yearslnsomecases. For anytransit)rmationalchange,Kotter(2012,p.52)
advisesthechange managerto“neverletup;keeplearning 丘om e×perience;anddon’t
declarevictorytoosoon.
”ln otherWords,celebratethewins,butdonotdeclareoverall
victory,Untilachangeisfirmlyembedded,thepossibilityofareturntopreviousworldLng
practiceswillremainpossible,TheremaybesignificantnumbersofpeopleWhoarehoping
thatthechangeWillnotsucceedandthat”thingswillreturntonormal.
“Those who定el
thiswaymaynotmaketheirviewsknown,APneFisherusestheterm”viciouscompliance
todescribethoseWhodisplaysupportinpublic(“theyWillnodandsmileandagree
With
ever質hingthatyousEー〆)butareresentflllofthechangeandare Waiting化)rtheoPpor
tunitytoreturntothe“oldWays
”ofworldLngtowhichtheyremaincommitted.
372
ChaPterlI
S”s′”m″7gC,7”′?gel初”s万7“′”!′・’e上)ec(リノ
Bewarethe Escalation ofCom mitment
ltisimPortanttorecognizethatnotalIProPosedchangesaregoingtobebene行cial(de
Barros 発ixeiraetal,,2019),lfachangeisnotproducingthedes立edoutcome,thenthis
maybea”
Praiseworthy魚ilure,
”whichitwouldbewisetodiscontinue.H[owever,itiSalso
wisetoguardagainsttheunderstandabletendencyoftheadvocatesofthischangetoargue
that 魚ilureto
deliveris
duetoinsu茸icientfundingandthatmoretimeisneededto
demonstratethebeneEits.lfthoseargumentsareaccePted,thenfurtherresourceswillbe
allocatedtotheinitiative,creatingan“escalationofcommitment,
”BarryStawandjerry
Ross(2004)identi fbur 魚ctorsthatcanleadtoescalation:
1.Prのecrdere削げ′似〃鳶,Commitmentislikelytoincrease wherethelackofptogressis
consideredtobeduetoatemporaryproblem,whereadditionalfundingisconsidered
likelytobee鎖ective,orwheretherelativePayo賃tocome丘omadditionalinvestment
lsconsideredtobelarge.
2,P切ノcんo/og!cq/〆鋤け′7山脇“嵐 “SunkcostsarenotsunkPsychologically.
“Escalationcan
result 丘om sel萄ustification biases.This haPpens when you have been Personally
resPonsible危radecisionandwanttoavoidbeingassociatedwithlosses,soyou maln-
tainyourcommitment.
3.sodα/〆ezer“?Z“”′?俗.Escalation mayoccurasthosemostcloselyidenti賃edwithapr噂-
ectcommitmoreresourcesinanattempttoreviveitandtherebysave魚cebynotbeing
associated witha 魚ilure.ThisresPonseisencouragedbytheexistenceof“the hero
e鎖ect”orthe“speciaIPraiseandadoration 和rmanagerswho‘sticktotheilgtlns
’in
the 魚ceofopPositionandseeminglybleakodds”(StawandRoss,2004,P.209),
4. 0増の7ZzqzZo′?〆 〆e定形““の2な.0rganizationalunitsarelikelytoresisttheabandonment
ofaprojectthatisseenascentraltotheiridentity,Staw and Rosscitetheexampleof
the aerospace and defensecomPany Lock立]eed N[artin’sL1olI
Tri‐StarJetProgram,
arguingthatthecomPanyPersisted withthisPr噂ect 免r morethanadecade,despite
hugelosses-andPredictionsthatitwasunlikelytoearnaPro6rt-becausetoabandon
itwouldhave meantadmittingthattheyweresimplyade免nsecontractorandnot,as
theypre危rredtobelieve,aploneerlncommercialaircra賞.
Howcanescalationofcommitmentbeavoided?N[arkKeiland RamiroM[ontealegre
(2000)identiルthe危1lowingadvice:
o
Don’tignorenegative舵edbackorexternaIPressure,
8
HireanexternalassessortoprovideanindePendentview onProgress,
・ Doαtbea丘aidtowithhold 急rtherresourcesand鏡nd血g;aswellas社ロロtinglosses,ithas
symbolicvalueinthatitisa魚blyemPhaticsignalthatthereisconcern withprogress,
e
Look食)roPPortunitiestoredefinetheProblemandtherebygenerateideas云orcourses
ofaction otherthantheonebeingabandoned,
o
A江anageimpressions,Framethe”de‐escalation“ina waythatsaves危lce.
o
Prepareyourstakeholdersbecause,iftheysharedtheinitialbeliefintherationale免r
thechange,the立reactiontoanannouncementoftheabandonmentofthechange may
betoresist,
・ Look危roPPortunitiestodeinstitutionalizetheProject,thatis,to makeclearthatthe
PrQiectisnotacentraldefin血g危atureoftheorganization,sothat”steppingbacr does
notimplyany weakeningofcommitmenttothecentralmissionoftheorganization.
Chapter.・
s”””′7″7gc/7の7ge・,げ伽sム?/!′”r′陀 )ecのノ
373
DipankarGhosh(1997)suggeststhree 位rtherstepsthatcanhelptoreducetheesca‐
lationofcommitment.First mm?汐辱めz‘sたed加ckonprogressreducesescalation;where
熊edbackisambiguous,thetendencytofilterin化)nnationselectivelycanleadto
escalation
bythose who
are
already committedtothe
change.Second,provide
regzdqrProgress
re二pop棚 includinge×P1anations化)rdeviations丘om budget.lfprogressreportsarenota
requirement,thentheywillnotnecessarilyberequestedbelt)refurtherresourcesarecom‐
mitted.Third,provideZ頒omm加〃o〃ル”肥らe粥秀懇lntheabsenceofthesedata,decisions
willbetooheavilyinfluencedbyhistoricalcosts,
Awarenessofthe Phenomenon ofescalation ofcommitmentisthestarting point賞)r
identi尊ingsolutions, However,thiscanbeacha”engingproblem to manageasthe 血e
betweenanoPtimistic
”cando“attitudeandoyer‐commitmentcanbediaFicu.ttoestabush・
Recognize Deep Structures
Tounderstandwhatisinvolvedinproducingsustainedorganizationalchange,itisimport‐
anttorecognizetwodi強erentandcoexistinglevelsofanalysis(C1ausenandKragh,2019).
FirstisthelevelofsPecificchangeprqiectsthatmayberelativelysur錠celevelphenomena,
inthesensethattheydonotdisruptorsignificantlychallengekeyaspectsofunderlying
culturalandpowerrelationshiPs.Secondisthelevelof“deepstructures”involvingembed‐
dedsenses
ofidentityand normativebelie危that,as notedinchaPter
8,can generate
resistance.Surlace‐levelchangesstillneedtobewellmanaged astheyarenotimmune
丑om negativereactions,buttheyaretypicallylesscomP1e×貴)rmsofchangeto manage
thanthose wheredeePstructuresareinvolved.
」effreyPfeffer(2010)arguesthat,tobuildsustain-
ableorganizations,Weneedtotreathumansustain-
ability
as
seriously
as
we
do
environmental
and
ecological
concerns. organizational
poliCies
and
managementpracticesinfluencethehum・anandso-
cialenvironmentandaffectemployeewell‐beingin
Var1ousways:provlslonofhealthinsurance,effects
oflayoffs,workinghoursandwork‐lifebalance,job
design
and
stress,income
inequa畢ities,organlza-
tionalculture,andemotionalclimate:
Companiesthatdonotprovidehealthinsurance,
laypeopーeoff,payinadequatewages,andhave
work
arrangements
that
stress and
overwork
their
employees
also
impose
externaーities
that
others
payforeven
astheysaveontheirown
costs,(p.42)
However,
”green
managementr
which
is
con-
ce「ned with
environmentalawareness,energyeffi-
ciency,andcarbonemissions,hasnotbeenmatched
by
a
paralleー
focus
on em
ployee
welfare,
“even
thoughthatmightbeaninterestingandinformative
indicator
ofwhat
companies
aredoing
aboutthe
sustainabilityoftheirpeoP1ざ(p,36},Actionsaffect-
ingthephysica-environmenta「emorevisible:
ou
can
seethe
icebergs
melting,poーar
bears
stranded,forests
cut
down,and
mountaintops
reshaped
by
mining,and experience
firsthand
thedirtyairandwaterthatcancomefromcom‐
panyeconomicactivitiesthatimposeexternalities,
Reduced-ifeexpectancyandpoorerphysicaland
mental
healthstatusare morehiddenfromview.
Eventheoccasionalandwell‐publicizedactof
em‐
ployee
or
e employee
violence has
multiple
causesandiso代enseenasaberrantbehaviorout-
sideofthe
control
and「esponsibilityofthe
em‐
ployer.(p.41)
Pfefferproposes
a
research
agendatoexplore
theimpーicationsof”humansustainab”ity“po畢icieson
bothemployeewelfareandorganizationaleffective‐
ness.VVhatstepsisyourorganizationtakingtoad-
dresshumanandsocialsustainability?VVhatfurther
actionwouldbedesirable,andwhy?
374
Chapter”
s”””“”′7gC77の壌eyeな”sム7′“”〃、ぞDecのノ
EXERCISE
1tishelpfultoconsiderappropriate measuresofsuccessforachangeinitiative.Thinking
竹川
ofachangeinitiativethatiscurrentlyunderwayinyourorganization(orachangethat
48α超′にed
istakingp-aceinanorganizationwithwhichyouare『ami1iar},identifythe measuresthat
serザ
youthinkshou1d beapp1ied,and-isttheminthefo=owingtab1e.Bytickingtheappro‐
ルを餌冴es
priatecolumn(ノ),note whichtypeofmeasuresyouhaveidentified.ltmaybePossible
toclassifyanyone measurein morethanonecategory;brandimage,forexample,may
beーagging,external,andnoncost.
lfthe measuresthatyouareproposingdonotinc-udeaーlsixtypesofmeasures,you
needto
expーain
whythe“missing”types
are
not
inc-uded,lfyoucannotgive
a
good
expーanation,you mayneedtoproposeadditionalmeasures.
Measure
Leading
L
1,..,,.,・,・.・,・.,
2,...,.,・・,..,= ‘
3... ” ,.・ ” =.=.
4.,..,. “ ”‘.= -
TypeofMeasure
Leading
Lagging
lnternaI
ExternaI Cost
Noncost
5.,.,...・・・・ ” . ”
EXERCISE
Earlierinthischapter,weidentifiedthetoptencausesofinitiativedecay.Whichofthese
竹.2
factorsapplytotherecentchangesinyourorganization? ぬ′hatadditionaーfactors,not
蜘厳
島
mentioned
here,could
cause
initiative
decay
in
your
organization? Considering
each
causeinturn,whattreatmentwouldyouprescribetoavoidorreducethedecay?
Cause
1,
lnitiatorsmoveon.
2.
Accountabilitybecomesdiffuse.
3,
Knowledgelostthroughstaffturnover,
4,
01dhabitsimportedwithnewrecruits,
5.
Changetriggersnolongervisible.
6,
New managerswiththeirownagendas.
7.
Powerbrokersblockingprogress.
8.
Pump‐primin9fundshaverunout.
9.
otherprioritiesdivertingattention.
10,
lnitiativefatigue,lackofenthusiasm.
11,
other.
PrescribedTreatment
12,
other,
ChaPterll
S”sm/′?力7gCたα′7ge、ぞ′”s方7〃′m′1’ePβcのノ
375
EXERCISE
Wediscussedthe 2003 Co′〃mb′o shuttle disasterin
chapter3.There,we explored
ll.3
reasons whyorganizations(inthiscase NASA)oftenfaiーtochangefo=owingaccidents
717ze
suchasthisone,havingPreviouslylosttheshuttleChallengerinl986,Wealsoexpーored
cカメを“8げ
theorganizationalcultureatNASAinchaPter5,emphasizin9that,Whilethebーamefor
α“〆
bothshuttlelosses waslinkedtotechnicalproblems,the moresignificantcontributory
factors
lay with
leadership, management,and
organizational
cultureissues.This
is
a
cαzmのZα
familiarPattern,seenin manymajorcatastroPhes・Hereisafulleraccountofbothdisas‐
s勿‘rずを
ters,whichcontainlessonsconcerning organizationalchangeingeneralandthesus
Dなαsze都
tainabilityofchangeinParticular,SPaceexP1orationisuniquein manyrespects,butfrom
achange managementperspective,thelessonsfromthisexperlencea「egenerlc.
璽璽璽璽
Asyou「eadthiscaseaccount,considerthefo=owingquestions:
1. VVhataspectsofNASApracticerevealedfollowingtheCo/Umb′odisaste「suggestthat
the
changesthat were
recommendedfollowing
the
c力O″engerdisaster Were
not
sustained?
2.This
chapter
has
discussed
actions
that
can
betaken
to sustain
change.ln
your
judgment,which ofthefollowing would have been mostusefulto NASA afterthe
Cho〃engerdisaster?
o
Redesignroles.
o
Redesignrewardsystems.
o
Linkselectiontoorganizationalobjectives.
・
VVaikthetalk,
o
Encouragevo-untaryactsofinitiative.
・
MeasureProgress.
・
Celebrateenroute.
・
Fine-tuning.
3.Thischapterhasexplained”wordsofwarning”intermsofwhattobealerttoinregard
tosustainingchange.VVhichofthefolーowingdoyouseeas mostaPP1icableto NASA?
・
Recognizeproductive,praiseworthyfailures.
・
ExpecttheunanticiPated.
・
Bewarethelimitationsofmeasurement.
・
BewarePrematuredeclarationofvictory.
・
Bewaretheescalationofcommitment,
376
ChaPterlI
S”s如力7′′?gC/m′?gel’ezs”s万?舵α加増上)ecのノ
Control,the
pulsing
digits
on
thescreen
abruptlystopped.Mission ControI
Spokesman
Steve Nesbittsatabovethefourconsoletiers,Foralong momenthestaredaroundthe
silent,so代lylitroom,Theredascenttrajectoryline wasstationa~ onthedisplayscreen.
Finallyhespoke:”F1ightcontrollersherelookingve~ carefullyatthesituation.obviously
amajormalfunction.
”
Headed
byformer
Secretary ofState
VVilliam
Rogers,the
PresidentiaI
C0mmlss-on
that was
set
up
to
investigatethe
Cause
ofthe
cho′/engerdisaster
had
littletrouble
identifyingthephysicalcause,oneofthejointsona boosterrocketfai-edtoseal.The
‘‘culprit”wasoneofthesyntheticrubberC)-ringsthatweredesignedtokeeptherockets’
superhotgasesfromescapingfromthejointsbetweenthebooste sfourmainsegments,
VVhenoneoftheo‐ringsfailed,theresuーtingflamesburnedthroughtheshuttle’sexternal
fueltank,Liquidhydrogenandliquidoxygenthen mi×edandignited,causingthee×p-o-
sionthatdestroyed cho〃enger.
However,theso‐Called RogersCommissioninvestigationsalsorevealedagreatdeal
abouttheinternalworkingsofNASA.ltwasageographicallydispersed matrixorganト
zation.Headquarterswerein肌′ashington,DC,Whereitsmostseniormanagers,inC1uding
its
head,NASA administratorJames
Beggs,were
mainlyinvo-ved
in
lobbying
activity,
reflectingthedependenceonfederalfunds(anditsvu-nerabilitytofluctuationsinfund-
ing},Mission Controlwaslocated attheJohnson Space Centerin Houston,絶Xas,AI1
nrnn--!Ginn角くnQ k
m角-n
Qnn-nQq
rnckQtb00SterS‐fueltanks--weretheresponsibilitv
also
atthe
centerofa
”can-do”attitude within
NASA,supportingtheideathat
great
objectivesareachievableifonlythe willisthere.Bornofthe Apollosuccess,thistook
formin Marshallasprideintheachievementofobjectivesandstronglyheldviewsthat
ifafliohtwasto be delavedforanvreason,itwould
neverbe becauseofsomething
Chapterll
s婚姻′′?′′7gc力の壌evers”s方7/r′研かeDecの’
377
厳
窄
H
9
r
顕
配
ー
1
o
a
r
ri
.11
.1ー
.--
蟻
織
激
闘
a
s
u
a
restructure
ndtracking
submitting
378
ChaPterll
Sz′srq′′7′′7gC方α′?gel’e裕”s力7″デq“1’g上)eαリノ
豊
三
瀞
二
選
澱
e
q
)
o
a
始
m
一蹴÷轍
細
心
紬
触
…卵
細
棚
鮎
醐
細
回
緋
十願キー
s
t
t
…
n
u
,n
,n
r
硝
o
d
・1
…
The Co′”mb′α Disaster
on
Februaryl,2003,thespace
shuttle
Co/〃mb′o’s
braking
rockets werefired
asthe
shutt-eheadedtowarda-andingatKennedySpaceCenter,AsitpassedovertheUnited
States,observersspottedglowing
piecesofdebrisfallingfromtheshuttle.At8:59am
EST,commanderRickHusbandrepliedtoaca=from Mission Control,buthisacknowl-
edgmentceased
mid-transmission,Abouta
minutelater,Co/umb′o broke
up,killing
its
seven
astronauts.
The Columbia Accidentlnvestigation Board(CAIB orBoard)Wasformedtoidentify
whathad
happened.ln
itsAugust2003final
report,itidentifiedthe
physica-causeof
the
accident.A
I.67‐pound
slab
ofinsulating
foam
feH
offthe
externalfuel
tank
81.7
secondsafterCo′〃mb′o waslaunched(onJanuary16),hittheleftwing,andcauseda
breachinthetilesdesignedtoprotectthealuminum wingfromtheheatofreentryr
on
reentry,thebreachallowedsuperheatedgasintothewing,which,asaresult,meltedin
criticalareas.
ButtheBoardalsoaddressedthenonphysicalfactorsthatcontributedtothedisaster.
Because ofno
lmprovementinthe
-evelofNASAfunding,NASA AdministratorDanieI
Goldin Pusheda”Faster,Better,CheaPeド(FBC)initiativethatimpacted ontheshuttle
program.
accident,
theagency’spowerful
human
spaceflightcultureremainedintact,asdid
many practicessuch asinadequate concern overdeviationsfrom expected
perfor-
mance,asilentsafetyprogram,andschedulepressure.
management
human
SPaC
uate
C0nCern
Though
accident,
Chapterll
s那加′“′′?gc力の7ge1ぞなz摺方7m研かどDecαy
379
a
e
q
y
.
e
ft
降
臨
combined with deCentralized execution ofSafety programsatthe program and project
levels,the BoardfoundthatNASA had notbeen willingto givetheprくりectteamsthe
independentStatusforthistoactuallywork.
TheexternaltankoftheshuttlewasdesignedWithaーayerofinsuーati。ntilesthatWere
designedtostickt。thetank,nottobeshed.Similarly,theshuttle’SheatShield wasnot
designedto bedamaged;thetileS werefragile,suchthattheshuttle wasnotallowed
toflyinrain。rstayoutsideinhail.
However,theexperlence。fpreviouslaunches wasthatfoam sometimesdidfa=。ff
andtileSsometimesweredamaged.Butthiswasoccurnng withoutanynoticeableneg-
ativeeffectonthefunctioning 。ftheshutt-e.ofl12flights
priort。thefataI
Co/umb′o
flight,foam hadbeenShed70timeSandtileshadcomebackdamagedeverytime.over
time,NASA managers9otusedtotheideathatsuchdamageWouldoccurandConvinced
themse-Vesthere Wasnosafety-of-flightissue.丁heBoardreportedthat”program man-
a9ementmadeerroneousassumptionsabouttherobustnessofasystem basedonprlor
successratherthanondependableenglneeringdataandrigoroustesting.
”
The
rePortcites eightseparate“missed
opportunities“
by NASA duringthe16‐day
fliqhtto「esPondtoe×Dress-onsof onPm nrnfforくfh角十rn---バhぬ・′凸Qぐcidorl
ヒ(rovnm-
A=Voices mustbeheard,Whichcanbedifficultwhenfacingahierarchy.Anemploy-
ee’s
location
in
the
hierarchy
Can
encouraqe
silence. oroanizationsinterestQrl
in
pーe,englneer
Centerifthe
beenleftuna
offertoobtain
The Board
could bedon
theaccident,
380
ChaPter竹
S”sr”′′7′′7gC/70′?ge1’ers”sわ?所研ハ’eDecのノ
Managementdecisions madedurin9 Co′〃mb′q’sfina-flightreflectmissedopportuni‐
ties,blockedorineffectivecommuniCationChannels,flawedanalysis,andine行ective
leadership.Perhaps moststrikingisthefactthatmanagementdisplayednointerest
in
understanding
a
problem
and
its
implications.Because managersfailedto avaiー
themSeIVesofthewiderangeofexpertiseandopinionnecessa~t0aChieVethe
best
answertothe
debris
strike
question.-“wasthis
a
safety-of-flightConcern?’’--some
spaceshutt-e
pro9ram
managersfai-edtofulfiltheimplicitcontractto do whatever
-s
possibleto
ensurethesafetyofthecrew.lnfact,their managementteChniques
unknowinglyimposed
barriersthatkeptatbayboth engineeringconCernsand dis-
sentingviews,and ultimatelyhelpedcreate”blindspots“thatpreventedthem from
seeingthedangerthefoam strikeposed.
The Boardconcludedthatthe post‐cho//engerchanges”wereundoneovertimeby
managementactions”andthat”thepre-chd′′engerーayersofprocesses,boardsandPan-
eーsthathad producedafalsesenseofconfidenceinthesystem anditslevelofsafety
returnedinfullforcepriorto Co/〃mb′o.
”
CaseSourCes
Berger,B.2003,Colu1mLbiarePolt熊山仕sNASAculture,goVetnゴロQentoVe1sight.SEPqce‘com,
August26.http://www.space.com虚ロssioロlaunches/caibJpreview-
030707‐1,h加コd.
ColumbiaAccidentlnvestigationBoard.2003,Co/“用鰯”△cc!熊川‘〃vesi増曙′○“βo研げ尺ePo覆
匿o/”′77es/め し7.Vi責asIMington,DC:NationaIAeronauticsandsPaceAdm”listrationandthe
GOVern北1entPri1ltirlgoぼice,
Coyault,C.2003,Fa紅ureanoption?:NASA’sshanowsa食うtyprogram PutCo1umLbiaandher
crewonsaIT1ePathasChallenger,AvidZZO“ 厳密化&S蹴ce露c脳oわき妙159(9):27‐35,
Mccomユell, 4,1987,C加″g′7gげ;4se“o”sm”ク加αZO“,London:s加口on &Schuster.
Magn‐usson,E.1986,Asefiousdeficiency.方me(Ma工ch10):34一36,
Morring,F.ir.2003,Cultureshock,A顕倣わ′? 厳密化&角卿鑑賞をc卿○わき妙159(9):31-34,
,Columbia
http://wWW・
AdditionaI
Buchanan,D.A,,Fitzgerald,L.,andKetley,D, ds),2007.勤es那加粥の遊び 鯛d即だαメザ
Reading
o′柳川z研/o〃”/c加′7肥 Mo叱m顔ねg庇α肋鯛だ,London:Routledge,Reportsastudyofthe
Problemsofd迫範singandsusta立lingnewwork血gPracticesinthet丁K NationaIHealth
Service,Basedoncasestudiesofsustainabi韻typracticeindifferentareasofhealthcare,
o鎖ersPracticaladviceonthedissem血ationofnewideasandthestePsnecessarytosus-
tamthoseoncei血IP1emented.Theorgan血ationand managementissues-and血IP1ications
あrPractice-applytootherorganizationsandsectorsandarenotconfinedtohealth.
Edmondson,A,2018,劣るeたα可esso雄鶏mz研か苫CIだの粥g撚りに力oわgにα/均一だeか粥 物ewo液ぞ卿ce
ルァ/eqr′?Z′7g !′7′7の’αrわれ m?〆grow豹.Hoboken,Nj:John Wiley& Sons.Discussesthe
stePsnecessarytocreateapsychologicallysafeenvironmentatwork,inWhichPeople
危elabletoe×Perimentand make mistakeswithoutPunishment,
Mahler,J.G‐,,andCasamayou,M,H,2009.0増zz〃ZzのZo〃〆蛇の切粥gqz蔵質品4′77物eC物α舵〃ger
m7αCひれのめ如 αccZde川風 頓Zashmgton,DC: Georgetown UniversityPress.0節ersaftesh
analysisofthetwoN‐ASAshuttledisasters,intermsoforganizationallearning.Wrhat
didNASA1earn茸omtheCZZα/鋤gerdisaster?日ow muchofthatlearningwassymbolic,
ChaPterll
s”sm“?′′?gc!m′?gevezs″s左方万頒ハ’e乙)孜凝ii
ヨ写1
andnotsubStantive?vvhatdidNASA notlearn?AndwhatdidNASAlearnand鑓上en
fbrget-thuscontributingtothelossoftheshuttleC〆”削る/”?Externalpoliticaland壱甑d-
getaryPressureswereoftentoblameあrthenonlearningandfbrgetting,andthese 謡e
態ctorsthatalsojeoPardizethesustainabilityofthekindsoforganizationalchangesthat
NASA wasadvisedtolllake,
P花ぼer,J.2010.Buildingsustainableorganizations:Thehuman 魚ctor.4mde′仰 げゑぬ〃?-
αgeme“『控なp沈静es24(1):34‐45.Arguesthatenvironmentalsustainabilityhasattract副
mostofthe′attentionandthathumanandsocialsustainabilityareequallyimportant。
Suggeststhat,while“
green management“canbenentanorganizationfinancialb′,andin
termsofreputation,asimilarfbcuson humansustainabilityshouldalsogenerate
returns,Proposesaresearchagenda,toexplorelinksbetween humanand.socialsu‐露頭ヱ.-
abilityPracticesandorganizationale爺ectiveness.
Sull,D.,Homkes,R.,andsull,C.2015.W〆hystrategyexecutionunravels-and what鱒
doaboutit,息αrvα川 β”sZ〃ess尺e塵り93(3):5 66.Strategyexecutionseemstoben・ore
Problematicthandevelopingstrategy,becauseexecutionismisunderstood。Theprob16耽l
isnotalignment,butcoordination;researchshowsthatpeopleinotherunits(internal
ande×ternal)arenotreliable.Execution doesnot mean”stickingtotheP1an
” where
changingconditionsdemandflexibility.Communications丘omtop managementmayも拶
丘equentbutareo貸eninconsistent;onlyhalfofmiddle managerscannameanyoft蔭葛ir
organizatioぱstopPriorities,Doesexecutionrequlrea“
per危rmanceculture”?Perhaps,
butagility,teamwork,andambitionshouldalsoberewarded,Theideathatexecution
shouldbedriven 丑omthetopisa m賃h;execution“livesanddieswith managersin
the middle-buttheyarehamstrungbythePoorcommunication 丘om above”(P.66),
Concludesthatfosteringcoordinationandbuildingagilityarekeytostrategyexecutioll,
Thesameguidelinesapplytochangeimplementation.
Roundup
-fyouhavebeeninvolvedpreviouslyas
a
managerofchange,how wouldyou
rateyourselfintermsofyourhand-ing
oftheneedtotakeactionsthatsustain
change?
VVhat
have
you
done
wefー?
VVhatnotsowell?
VVhenyou
havebeen
ontherecelvlng
endofthechangeinitiativesofothers,
howwellhavetheyhandledtheneedto
takeactionsthatsustainchange?VVhat
havetheydonewe”?VVhatnotsoweli?
ofthecasespresentedinthischapter,
which
one
resonateS
best
With
you?
VVhatisitaboutthiscasethatyoucan
relateto?Arethereanyimplicationsずり『
howyouWouldactinthefuture?
Howgoodareyouathandlingunantにも
pated
outcomes?
HQw
cou-d
you
鮪n一
proveinthisarea?
lfthere
was
one
mainidea
that
yi)u
tookawayfrom
thischapterthatyou
believecanbeofmostusetoyouasa
changemanager,whatWoulditbe?
-fyouweretoaddanidea,suggestion,
orpracticetothetreatmentofsusta誓言.…
ingchangethatisprovidedinthisChap-
ter,whatWQuidbeyourcQntrlbuti。”ぞ
382
ChaPterll
及ぼr所′7′′7gC力の7gelぞr瀞俗万?′′′α抗’g上)ecの′
H[ereisashortsummaryofthekeyPointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丑omthischaPter,
inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:
防7de′罰伽d豹ec似sesげ“7ZZ!蛸ハフedecqiノ一助mrsゎ 豹es”s如!mb〃リノグc加′7ge.
ThischaPterhasemPhasizedthatevenchangesthathavebeenimP1ementedsuccess篇
fullyareliabletodecay,Sustainabilitycannotbetaken あrgranted.The‘‘improvement
evaPoration
efEect,
” asthe benefits 丘om
change
are
lost,is
common. The
change
managermayhavelittledirectcontroloverthe 魚ctorsthatleadtoinitiativedecay,but
measurescanbePutinP1acetocounterthose 態ctorsandtoincreasetheProbability
thatchangewillbesustained.lnitiativedecaycanbecausedbymanyfactors,andwe
identifiedlo:initiatorsmoveon,accountabilitybecomesdiffuse,kllowledgeislostwith
sta茸turnover,oldhabitsareimPorted withnew recruits,thechangetriggersareno
longervisible,new managershavetheirown agendas,powerbrokersblockProgress,
start-uPfundingruns
out,other Priorities
emerge,sta甘 su鐘erinitiative 態tigue-and
enthusiasm 云orchange droPs,Thechange managerthushastoremainVigilantwith
regardtoPotentialthreatstosustainabilitysuchasthese, Manyofthechange models
and 丘ameworksdiscussedinchaPter
loidentifysustainabilityasafinalstePinthe
Process.N[anagingsustainabilityasana賃erthought,however,canbeProblematic.ltis
moreaPProPriatetodesignsustainabilityintoachangeinitiativefromthestart.
DZSZZ′7g乙′Zs々 ゎerwee〃cたの7ge助力Zのんes豹αrqだ”鋭”meworrわぞの頒sんα′/α′7α 庇s〃s云の〃ed
q′7dr力ose 豹αrm.e‘炉α!sellノの・r毎ノぞ
頓Zealso emPhasizedthat,when achange doesnot work outasP1anned,thisisnot
necessarily
a
Problem, Failures
are
not
always
bad. 訳/e
discussed the
distinction
betweenblameworthyandPraiseworthy 態ilures,TheFormerincludedeliberateorinad-
vertentdeviations丘om Prescribed practice,ExPerimentsdesignedtoimProvePerあr-
mance÷andreasonableactionsthathaveundesirablebutunPredictableoutcomes,are
Praiseworthy-becausethey oぼeroPPortunities 丘om whichtolearn, M[any organiza-
tions,however,treatmost飴iluresasblameworthy,Thisiswasteful,becausethelessons
arelost,andthosewhoareinaPPropriatelypunishedarelikelytobedemotivated.The
change managementchallengeistoestablishaPsychologicallysa危 environm‐entthat
welcomesexperimentation,recognizesandrewardsPraiseworthy 危ilures,andenables
learning,
履e川砂 α′“qpカリ堰αZの7sr々萌cm7の′7rr治雄ero 物es那加〃の蒲リノげc加′7ge,
‐AJthoughsomeofthethreatstosustainabilityarebeyonddirectmanagementcontrol,
awareness
ofthose
threats
and
their
imPact
can
generatetimely
and
aPproPriate
responses,VVediscussedeightsetsofPossibleactionstostrengthenthesustainability
ofagivenchange:redesignroles,redesignrewardsystems,linkstaぼselectiontochange
o切ectives,
”walkthetalk,
”encouragevoluntary acts ofinitiative, measure progress,
celebrate”smaller wins”enroute,andfinetunetheaPProach whenthe Process(as
almostalwayshaPPens)doesnotunfoldasanticipated, Wealsodistinguishedbetween
sustainingthesubstance ofchange(new working Practices, あr examP1e) and an
imProvementtr瑚ectory(蕪rtherreductionsintimeto market,危re×ample),Preventive
maintenanceinvolvesactiontosustainthe 化)rmer,to keePthosePracticesoPerating
as
intended. Developmental maintenance,on the
other
hand,involves
adaPtingto
circumstancestogainincreasingbenefits
chapter11
&!瀞α″7′′7gc力の7geveな”sみ?mm′veDeαか
383
腫圃園園 の雌の 超〃〆肋ep/物体 豹α”α〃”r/sew庇〃彫琢!′?gzos那加!′7c加増e.
VVeclosedthechaPterwithanumberofwordsofwarning化)rthechange manager.
First,expecttheunexpectedand managethe(positiveand negative)unintendedco距
sequences.Second,bewarethelimitationsofmeasurel・lent,andrecognizetheimplica‐
tionsoftheJ-curveand Kanter’slaw,whichstates,
“Everythinglookslikea稼ilurein
the
middle.
”Third,bewarethepremature
declaration
ofvictory, which may divert
energyand attention 丘omthechange process,butcontinueto celebratethe“small
wins“
as
appropriate. Finally,beware
the
escalation
ofcommitment
to
struggling
changeinitiativesbyacceptingtherequestsofadvocates貴)rFurtherresourceswhenit
isbecomingclearthattheinitiativeisnotgoingtodelivertheplannedoutcomes(but
maybeapraiseworthy魚ilure).
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Chapteropeningsilhouettecredit:CharlotteRabo町Shutterstock