Discussion 4

See attached

Review Merton’s theory of deviance, called “strain” or “anomie” theory, in the textbook and/or lecture note on functionalist perspective. Pick a contemporary example of deviance or crime (e.g., human trafficking, terrorism, drug abuse, homelessness, extreme piercing, etc.) that you believe fits one of Merton’s types of deviance (innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion). Which type is it? Justify and explain your choice by explaining how it fits. Then: Merton claims that deviance results from a mismatch between the goals society sets (value, end) for us and the methods (norms, means) it provides for achieving them. What goals and methods are mismatched in this case?

Note:  Give your main post a subject heading related to your example.  

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

CHAPTER 2

Sociological Research

Sociology in Modules,

Richard T. Schaefer

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter Modules

•

Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

•

Module 6 Major Research Designs

•

Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Module 8 Developments of Methodology

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Sociological Research
• Subject? Social phenomena, people & groups, social facts, social

process, social institutions, social structures, social construction of
reality, social patterns…. Etc.

• How ppl act, think, feel, and interact in a certain period of time and
in specific situation or context. How social structures are involved in
the life of individuals and groups. How society is organized and how it
changes…etc.

• Sociologists study society scientifically by following a methodological
approach =/= common sense or prejudgments and stereotypes.

• Sociologists explain the Why and the How society is ordered (
assumption. The goal of research is to develop scientific laws,
theories, and observations about society. Sociologist look for the
nature and the causes of the patterns in society and groups that we
can observe. E.g., patterns of divorce, marriage, addiction, suicide…

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

• Scientific method: a systematic, organized series
of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem. Science is a cyclic

process.

1. Defining the problem

2. Reviewing the literature

3. Formulating a testable hypothesis

4. Selecting the research design and then collecting and
analyzing data

5. Developing the conclusion
• A report is then prepared, with an executive summary

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure 5-1 The Scientific Method

The scientific method allows sociologists to objectively and logically evaluate
the data they collect. Their findings can suggest ideas for further sociological
research.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Defining the Problem

• Any research starts with a question.
• how schooling relates to income?

• Operational definition: explanation of an abstract concept
that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the
concept . What it is to be observed and how we will measure it. Listing

characteristics or attributes of variable to be able to test and measure

• Abstract—–> specific, concrete observations
• Gender, Women, Men. Amount of hrs spent studying for sociology class= 0 h to 5 h

• Status= membership in social club

• Prejudice= person’s unwilling to hire or work with members of minority group

• Altruism= giving money( charity), giving blood,….

• Does it pay to get a college degree ? We need to define earnings and level
of education. Education = numbers of years and earnings = income

• Religiosity and suicide ( Durkheim)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Reviewing the Literature

• Literature review consists of relevant scholarly
studies and information.

– Refine the problem. Other factors (statuses of parents)

– Clarify possible techniques for collecting data. State by
state income.

– Eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes (the search for
understanding reality is uncertain and unending)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Formulating the Hypothesis

• Hypothesis: speculative statement about the
relationship between two or more factors known as
variables

• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to
change under different conditions.

– Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or
influence another

– Dependent variable: variable whose action depends on
influence of the independent variable( effect)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Formulating the Hypothesis (2)

• Causal logic: involves a relationship between a
condition or variable and a particular consequence,
with one leading to the other. See p.33

• X —–> Y .

• Correlation: exists when change in one variable
coincides with change in the other.

– Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Selecting the Sample

– Sample: selection from a larger population( target) that is
statistically representative (list of all cases) of that population

– Random sample: when every member of an entire population
being studied has the same chance of being selected. The whole

population must be available for selection, if not the sample will not be random

– Snowball or convenience samples: participants recruited through
word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet. When it is
hard to find or identify. such as illegal drug users

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Collecting and Analyzing Data (2)

• Ensuring Validity and Reliability

– Research results must be both valid and reliable

– Validity: degree to which a measure or scale truly
reflects the phenomenon being studied. Am I measuring what
I intended to measure? Discrimination or prejudice ?

– Reliability: extent to which a measure produces
consistent results. How stable and consistent my results are? If a

same research is repeated by another sociologist, will he gets the same
results?

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Developing the Conclusion

• Supporting Hypotheses

– Sociological studies do not always generate data that
support the original hypothesis

– Sociologists interested in both the general pattern that
emerges from data and exceptions to that pattern

• Controlling for Other Factors

– Control variable: factor held constant in order to test the
relative impact of an independent variable

©McGraw-Hill Education.

In Summary:
The Scientific Method

• Defining the problem

• Reviewing the literature

• Formulating a hypothesis

• Collecting and analyzing data

• Developing the conclusion

©McGraw-Hill Education.

The Scientific Method, Example

• Example: Does it “pay” to go to college?

– Operational definitions: education and earnings

– Review of state-by state comparisons of income and educational
levels

– Hypothesis: The higher one’s educational degree, the more
money one will earn
• Variables: ++ level of education—-> ++ level of income

– Information collected from Census Bureau survey (secondary data)

– Conclusion: People with more schooling do earn more money
than others, although there are exceptions to the general pattern

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Causal Logic Figure 5-3

• In causal logic, an independent
variable (often designated by the
symbol x) influences a dependent
variable (often designated as y)

• Thus, x leads to y

• For example, parents who attend
church regularly (x) are more
likely to have children who are
churchgoers (y)

Independent
variable x

→
Dependent
variable y

Level of
educational degree

→ Level of income

Degree of lack of
integration into
society

→
Likelihood of
suicide

Availability of
affordable housing

→
Level of
homelessness

Parents’ church
attendance

→
Children’s church
attendance

Time spent
preparing for quiz

→
Performance on
quiz

Parents’ income →
Likelihood of
children’s enrolling
in college

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 6 Major Research Designs

• Research design: detailed plan or method for
obtaining data scientifically

–

Surveys

–

Ethnography

–

Experiments

– Existing sources

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Surveys

• Survey: study, generally interview or questionnaire,
that provides sociologists with information about
how people think and act

– Interview: researcher obtains information through
face-to-face, phone, or online questioning

– Questionnaire: researcher uses a printed or written form
to obtain information from a respondent

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Surveys (2)

• Quantitative research: collects and reports data
primarily in numerical form. We ask in this terms:
How many? How much? How often?

• Qualitative research: relies on what is seen in field
and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small
groups and communities. We use In-depth
interviews and direct observations and participation

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Ethnography

• Ethnography: study of an entire social setting through
extended systematic fieldwork. Qualitative , descriptive.

• Ethno: ppl & graphy: writing

• Observation: the basic technique of ethnography; direct
participation in closely watching a group or organization

– Ethnographic research also includes collecting historical
information and conducting in-person interviews

– Participant observation: method in which the sociologist joins a
group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates

– Street corner society, William F. Whyte .

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Experiments

• Experiment: artificially created situation that allows
a researcher to manipulate variables. The independent

variable is controlled.

– Experimental group: exposed to an independent variable

– Control group: not exposed to the independent variable

– Hawthorne effect: unintended influence of the observers
of experiments on the subjects. Western Electric CO
20/30s

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis: research techniques that make
use of previously collected and publicly accessible
information and data

– Considered nonreactive—not influencing people’s
behavior

– Durkheim’s data on suicide is an example of secondary
analysis

• Content analysis: systematic coding and objective
recording of data, guided by some rationale

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Table 6-2 Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Most Frequently Used Sources
• Census data

• Crime statistics

• Birth, death, marriage, divorce,
and health statistics

Other Sources
• Newspapers and periodicals

• Personal journals, diaries, e-mail, and letters

• Records and archival material of religious
organizations, corporations, and other
organizations

• Transcripts of radio programs

• Motion pictures and television programs

• Web pages, blogs, and chat rooms

• Song lyrics

• Scientific records (such as patent applications)

• Speeches of public figures (such as politicians)

• Votes cast in elections or by elected officials on
specific legislative proposals

• Attendance records for public events

• Videos of social protests and rallies

• Literature, including folklore

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Table 6-3 Major Research Designs
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Survey Ethnography Experiment
Existing sources/
Secondary analysis

Examples:
questionnaires,
interviews

Example: observation Example: deliberate
manipulation of
people’s social
behavior

Example: analysis of
census or health data

Advantage: Yields
information about
specific issues

Advantage: Yields
detailed information
about specific groups or
organizations

Advantage: Yields
direct measures of
people’s behavior

Advantage:
Cost-efficient

Limitation: Can be
expensive and time-
consuming

Limitation: Involves
months if not years of
labor-intensive data

Limitations: Ethical
limitations on the
degree to which
subjects’ behavior can
be manipulated

Limitation: Limited to
data collected for
some other purpose

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Code of ethics: standards of acceptable behavior
developed by and for members of a profession

• ASA’s Code of Ethics (1997)
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research

2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity

3. Protect subjects from personal harm

4. Preserve confidentiality

5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research
participants or when behavior occurs in a private context

6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance

7. Disclose all sources of financial support (1999)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Value Neutrality

• Value neutrality: Max Weber’s term for objectivity
of sociologists in the interpretation of data

• Investigators have an ethical obligation to accept
research findings even when data run counter to
their personal views, to theoretically-based
explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs

©McGraw-Hill Education.

The Data-Rich Future

• Massive increases in available data allow sociologists
to undertake new research

– Housing issues in Boston

– Spread of influenza and other contagious diseases

– Crime patterns

• Increased data raises concerns about individual
privacy

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs

• Using Statistics

– Percentage: a portion of 100

– Mean: average; sum of a series of values divided by the
number of values. Always leans toward extreme score

– Mode: single most common value in a series of values.
Score that occurs the most times.

– Median: midpoint that divides a series of values into two
groups with equal numbers of values. To calculate the
median, scores must be arranged, then count down or up.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs (2)

• Reading Graphs

– Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data
and make it easier to develop conclusions

• Cross-tabulation: shows relationship between two or more
variables

– Graphs are often easier for the public to understand

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure A-2 Changing Attitudes
Toward the Legalization of Marijuana

A quick look at the results of 16 national surveys shows that support for legalization
of the drug has increased.

Source: Gallup 2014; see Jones and Saad. 2014.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure A-3 People Who Favor Legalization of
Marijuana by Political Affiliation and Age

Through cross-tabulation, we can quickly see that older people are less likely
to favor the legalization of marijuana than younger people, and that
Republicans are less supportive of legalization than Democrats.

Source: Gallup 2012; see Newport 2012.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix II:
Writing a Research Report

• Finding Information

– Check textbooks

– Use library’s online catalog

– Investigate computerized periodical indexes

– Examine government documents

– Use newspapers

– Ask people, organizations, and agencies concerned with
the topic

– Consult instructor or reference librarian

– Be cautious in using the Internet

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Review

• Sociologists are committed to the use of the
scientific method

• In this chapter:

– Basic principles of scientific method

– Various techniques used by sociologists in conducting
research

Review Merton’s theory of deviance, called “strain” or “anomie” theory, in the textbook and/or lecture note on functionalist perspective. Pick a contemporary example of deviance or crime (e.g., human trafficking, terrorism, drug abuse, homelessness, extreme piercing, etc.) that you believe fits one of Merton’s types of deviance (innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion). Which type is it? Justify and explain your choice by explaining how it fits. Then: Merton claims that deviance results from a mismatch between the goals society sets (value, end) for us and the methods (norms, means) it provides for achieving them. What goals and methods are mismatched in this case?

Note:  Give your main post a subject heading related to your example.  

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

CHAPTER 2

Sociological Research

Sociology in Modules,

Richard T. Schaefer

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter Modules

•

Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

•

Module 6 Major Research Designs

•

Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Module 8 Developments of Methodology

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Sociological Research
• Subject? Social phenomena, people & groups, social facts, social

process, social institutions, social structures, social construction of
reality, social patterns…. Etc.

• How ppl act, think, feel, and interact in a certain period of time and
in specific situation or context. How social structures are involved in
the life of individuals and groups. How society is organized and how it
changes…etc.

• Sociologists study society scientifically by following a methodological
approach =/= common sense or prejudgments and stereotypes.

• Sociologists explain the Why and the How society is ordered (
assumption. The goal of research is to develop scientific laws,
theories, and observations about society. Sociologist look for the
nature and the causes of the patterns in society and groups that we
can observe. E.g., patterns of divorce, marriage, addiction, suicide…

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

• Scientific method: a systematic, organized series
of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem. Science is a cyclic

process.

1. Defining the problem

2. Reviewing the literature

3. Formulating a testable hypothesis

4. Selecting the research design and then collecting and
analyzing data

5. Developing the conclusion
• A report is then prepared, with an executive summary

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure 5-1 The Scientific Method

The scientific method allows sociologists to objectively and logically evaluate
the data they collect. Their findings can suggest ideas for further sociological
research.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Defining the Problem

• Any research starts with a question.
• how schooling relates to income?

• Operational definition: explanation of an abstract concept
that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the
concept . What it is to be observed and how we will measure it. Listing

characteristics or attributes of variable to be able to test and measure

• Abstract—–> specific, concrete observations
• Gender, Women, Men. Amount of hrs spent studying for sociology class= 0 h to 5 h

• Status= membership in social club

• Prejudice= person’s unwilling to hire or work with members of minority group

• Altruism= giving money( charity), giving blood,….

• Does it pay to get a college degree ? We need to define earnings and level
of education. Education = numbers of years and earnings = income

• Religiosity and suicide ( Durkheim)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Reviewing the Literature

• Literature review consists of relevant scholarly
studies and information.

– Refine the problem. Other factors (statuses of parents)

– Clarify possible techniques for collecting data. State by
state income.

– Eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes (the search for
understanding reality is uncertain and unending)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Formulating the Hypothesis

• Hypothesis: speculative statement about the
relationship between two or more factors known as
variables

• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to
change under different conditions.

– Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or
influence another

– Dependent variable: variable whose action depends on
influence of the independent variable( effect)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Formulating the Hypothesis (2)

• Causal logic: involves a relationship between a
condition or variable and a particular consequence,
with one leading to the other. See p.33

• X —–> Y .

• Correlation: exists when change in one variable
coincides with change in the other.

– Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Selecting the Sample

– Sample: selection from a larger population( target) that is
statistically representative (list of all cases) of that population

– Random sample: when every member of an entire population
being studied has the same chance of being selected. The whole

population must be available for selection, if not the sample will not be random

– Snowball or convenience samples: participants recruited through
word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet. When it is
hard to find or identify. such as illegal drug users

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Collecting and Analyzing Data (2)

• Ensuring Validity and Reliability

– Research results must be both valid and reliable

– Validity: degree to which a measure or scale truly
reflects the phenomenon being studied. Am I measuring what
I intended to measure? Discrimination or prejudice ?

– Reliability: extent to which a measure produces
consistent results. How stable and consistent my results are? If a

same research is repeated by another sociologist, will he gets the same
results?

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Developing the Conclusion

• Supporting Hypotheses

– Sociological studies do not always generate data that
support the original hypothesis

– Sociologists interested in both the general pattern that
emerges from data and exceptions to that pattern

• Controlling for Other Factors

– Control variable: factor held constant in order to test the
relative impact of an independent variable

©McGraw-Hill Education.

In Summary:
The Scientific Method

• Defining the problem

• Reviewing the literature

• Formulating a hypothesis

• Collecting and analyzing data

• Developing the conclusion

©McGraw-Hill Education.

The Scientific Method, Example

• Example: Does it “pay” to go to college?

– Operational definitions: education and earnings

– Review of state-by state comparisons of income and educational
levels

– Hypothesis: The higher one’s educational degree, the more
money one will earn
• Variables: ++ level of education—-> ++ level of income

– Information collected from Census Bureau survey (secondary data)

– Conclusion: People with more schooling do earn more money
than others, although there are exceptions to the general pattern

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Causal Logic Figure 5-3

• In causal logic, an independent
variable (often designated by the
symbol x) influences a dependent
variable (often designated as y)

• Thus, x leads to y

• For example, parents who attend
church regularly (x) are more
likely to have children who are
churchgoers (y)

Independent
variable x

→
Dependent
variable y

Level of
educational degree

→ Level of income

Degree of lack of
integration into
society

→
Likelihood of
suicide

Availability of
affordable housing

→
Level of
homelessness

Parents’ church
attendance

→
Children’s church
attendance

Time spent
preparing for quiz

→
Performance on
quiz

Parents’ income →
Likelihood of
children’s enrolling
in college

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 6 Major Research Designs

• Research design: detailed plan or method for
obtaining data scientifically

–

Surveys

–

Ethnography

–

Experiments

– Existing sources

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Surveys

• Survey: study, generally interview or questionnaire,
that provides sociologists with information about
how people think and act

– Interview: researcher obtains information through
face-to-face, phone, or online questioning

– Questionnaire: researcher uses a printed or written form
to obtain information from a respondent

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Surveys (2)

• Quantitative research: collects and reports data
primarily in numerical form. We ask in this terms:
How many? How much? How often?

• Qualitative research: relies on what is seen in field
and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small
groups and communities. We use In-depth
interviews and direct observations and participation

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Ethnography

• Ethnography: study of an entire social setting through
extended systematic fieldwork. Qualitative , descriptive.

• Ethno: ppl & graphy: writing

• Observation: the basic technique of ethnography; direct
participation in closely watching a group or organization

– Ethnographic research also includes collecting historical
information and conducting in-person interviews

– Participant observation: method in which the sociologist joins a
group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates

– Street corner society, William F. Whyte .

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Experiments

• Experiment: artificially created situation that allows
a researcher to manipulate variables. The independent

variable is controlled.

– Experimental group: exposed to an independent variable

– Control group: not exposed to the independent variable

– Hawthorne effect: unintended influence of the observers
of experiments on the subjects. Western Electric CO
20/30s

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis: research techniques that make
use of previously collected and publicly accessible
information and data

– Considered nonreactive—not influencing people’s
behavior

– Durkheim’s data on suicide is an example of secondary
analysis

• Content analysis: systematic coding and objective
recording of data, guided by some rationale

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Table 6-2 Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Most Frequently Used Sources
• Census data

• Crime statistics

• Birth, death, marriage, divorce,
and health statistics

Other Sources
• Newspapers and periodicals

• Personal journals, diaries, e-mail, and letters

• Records and archival material of religious
organizations, corporations, and other
organizations

• Transcripts of radio programs

• Motion pictures and television programs

• Web pages, blogs, and chat rooms

• Song lyrics

• Scientific records (such as patent applications)

• Speeches of public figures (such as politicians)

• Votes cast in elections or by elected officials on
specific legislative proposals

• Attendance records for public events

• Videos of social protests and rallies

• Literature, including folklore

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Table 6-3 Major Research Designs
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Survey Ethnography Experiment
Existing sources/
Secondary analysis

Examples:
questionnaires,
interviews

Example: observation Example: deliberate
manipulation of
people’s social
behavior

Example: analysis of
census or health data

Advantage: Yields
information about
specific issues

Advantage: Yields
detailed information
about specific groups or
organizations

Advantage: Yields
direct measures of
people’s behavior

Advantage:
Cost-efficient

Limitation: Can be
expensive and time-
consuming

Limitation: Involves
months if not years of
labor-intensive data

Limitations: Ethical
limitations on the
degree to which
subjects’ behavior can
be manipulated

Limitation: Limited to
data collected for
some other purpose

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Code of ethics: standards of acceptable behavior
developed by and for members of a profession

• ASA’s Code of Ethics (1997)
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research

2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity

3. Protect subjects from personal harm

4. Preserve confidentiality

5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research
participants or when behavior occurs in a private context

6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance

7. Disclose all sources of financial support (1999)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Value Neutrality

• Value neutrality: Max Weber’s term for objectivity
of sociologists in the interpretation of data

• Investigators have an ethical obligation to accept
research findings even when data run counter to
their personal views, to theoretically-based
explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs

©McGraw-Hill Education.

The Data-Rich Future

• Massive increases in available data allow sociologists
to undertake new research

– Housing issues in Boston

– Spread of influenza and other contagious diseases

– Crime patterns

• Increased data raises concerns about individual
privacy

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs

• Using Statistics

– Percentage: a portion of 100

– Mean: average; sum of a series of values divided by the
number of values. Always leans toward extreme score

– Mode: single most common value in a series of values.
Score that occurs the most times.

– Median: midpoint that divides a series of values into two
groups with equal numbers of values. To calculate the
median, scores must be arranged, then count down or up.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs (2)

• Reading Graphs

– Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data
and make it easier to develop conclusions

• Cross-tabulation: shows relationship between two or more
variables

– Graphs are often easier for the public to understand

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure A-2 Changing Attitudes
Toward the Legalization of Marijuana

A quick look at the results of 16 national surveys shows that support for legalization
of the drug has increased.

Source: Gallup 2014; see Jones and Saad. 2014.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure A-3 People Who Favor Legalization of
Marijuana by Political Affiliation and Age

Through cross-tabulation, we can quickly see that older people are less likely
to favor the legalization of marijuana than younger people, and that
Republicans are less supportive of legalization than Democrats.

Source: Gallup 2012; see Newport 2012.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix II:
Writing a Research Report

• Finding Information

– Check textbooks

– Use library’s online catalog

– Investigate computerized periodical indexes

– Examine government documents

– Use newspapers

– Ask people, organizations, and agencies concerned with
the topic

– Consult instructor or reference librarian

– Be cautious in using the Internet

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Review

• Sociologists are committed to the use of the
scientific method

• In this chapter:

– Basic principles of scientific method

– Various techniques used by sociologists in conducting
research

Review Merton’s theory of deviance, called “strain” or “anomie” theory, in the textbook and/or lecture note on functionalist perspective. Pick a contemporary example of deviance or crime (e.g., human trafficking, terrorism, drug abuse, homelessness, extreme piercing, etc.) that you believe fits one of Merton’s types of deviance (innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion). Which type is it? Justify and explain your choice by explaining how it fits. Then: Merton claims that deviance results from a mismatch between the goals society sets (value, end) for us and the methods (norms, means) it provides for achieving them. What goals and methods are mismatched in this case?

Note:  Give your main post a subject heading related to your example.  

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

CHAPTER 2

Sociological Research

Sociology in Modules,

Richard T. Schaefer

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter Modules

•

Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

•

Module 6 Major Research Designs

•

Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Module 8 Developments of Methodology

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Sociological Research
• Subject? Social phenomena, people & groups, social facts, social

process, social institutions, social structures, social construction of
reality, social patterns…. Etc.

• How ppl act, think, feel, and interact in a certain period of time and
in specific situation or context. How social structures are involved in
the life of individuals and groups. How society is organized and how it
changes…etc.

• Sociologists study society scientifically by following a methodological
approach =/= common sense or prejudgments and stereotypes.

• Sociologists explain the Why and the How society is ordered (
assumption. The goal of research is to develop scientific laws,
theories, and observations about society. Sociologist look for the
nature and the causes of the patterns in society and groups that we
can observe. E.g., patterns of divorce, marriage, addiction, suicide…

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?

• Scientific method: a systematic, organized series
of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem. Science is a cyclic

process.

1. Defining the problem

2. Reviewing the literature

3. Formulating a testable hypothesis

4. Selecting the research design and then collecting and
analyzing data

5. Developing the conclusion
• A report is then prepared, with an executive summary

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure 5-1 The Scientific Method

The scientific method allows sociologists to objectively and logically evaluate
the data they collect. Their findings can suggest ideas for further sociological
research.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Defining the Problem

• Any research starts with a question.
• how schooling relates to income?

• Operational definition: explanation of an abstract concept
that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the
concept . What it is to be observed and how we will measure it. Listing

characteristics or attributes of variable to be able to test and measure

• Abstract—–> specific, concrete observations
• Gender, Women, Men. Amount of hrs spent studying for sociology class= 0 h to 5 h

• Status= membership in social club

• Prejudice= person’s unwilling to hire or work with members of minority group

• Altruism= giving money( charity), giving blood,….

• Does it pay to get a college degree ? We need to define earnings and level
of education. Education = numbers of years and earnings = income

• Religiosity and suicide ( Durkheim)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Reviewing the Literature

• Literature review consists of relevant scholarly
studies and information.

– Refine the problem. Other factors (statuses of parents)

– Clarify possible techniques for collecting data. State by
state income.

– Eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes (the search for
understanding reality is uncertain and unending)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Formulating the Hypothesis

• Hypothesis: speculative statement about the
relationship between two or more factors known as
variables

• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to
change under different conditions.

– Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or
influence another

– Dependent variable: variable whose action depends on
influence of the independent variable( effect)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Formulating the Hypothesis (2)

• Causal logic: involves a relationship between a
condition or variable and a particular consequence,
with one leading to the other. See p.33

• X —–> Y .

• Correlation: exists when change in one variable
coincides with change in the other.

– Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Selecting the Sample

– Sample: selection from a larger population( target) that is
statistically representative (list of all cases) of that population

– Random sample: when every member of an entire population
being studied has the same chance of being selected. The whole

population must be available for selection, if not the sample will not be random

– Snowball or convenience samples: participants recruited through
word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet. When it is
hard to find or identify. such as illegal drug users

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Collecting and Analyzing Data (2)

• Ensuring Validity and Reliability

– Research results must be both valid and reliable

– Validity: degree to which a measure or scale truly
reflects the phenomenon being studied. Am I measuring what
I intended to measure? Discrimination or prejudice ?

– Reliability: extent to which a measure produces
consistent results. How stable and consistent my results are? If a

same research is repeated by another sociologist, will he gets the same
results?

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Developing the Conclusion

• Supporting Hypotheses

– Sociological studies do not always generate data that
support the original hypothesis

– Sociologists interested in both the general pattern that
emerges from data and exceptions to that pattern

• Controlling for Other Factors

– Control variable: factor held constant in order to test the
relative impact of an independent variable

©McGraw-Hill Education.

In Summary:
The Scientific Method

• Defining the problem

• Reviewing the literature

• Formulating a hypothesis

• Collecting and analyzing data

• Developing the conclusion

©McGraw-Hill Education.

The Scientific Method, Example

• Example: Does it “pay” to go to college?

– Operational definitions: education and earnings

– Review of state-by state comparisons of income and educational
levels

– Hypothesis: The higher one’s educational degree, the more
money one will earn
• Variables: ++ level of education—-> ++ level of income

– Information collected from Census Bureau survey (secondary data)

– Conclusion: People with more schooling do earn more money
than others, although there are exceptions to the general pattern

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Causal Logic Figure 5-3

• In causal logic, an independent
variable (often designated by the
symbol x) influences a dependent
variable (often designated as y)

• Thus, x leads to y

• For example, parents who attend
church regularly (x) are more
likely to have children who are
churchgoers (y)

Independent
variable x

→
Dependent
variable y

Level of
educational degree

→ Level of income

Degree of lack of
integration into
society

→
Likelihood of
suicide

Availability of
affordable housing

→
Level of
homelessness

Parents’ church
attendance

→
Children’s church
attendance

Time spent
preparing for quiz

→
Performance on
quiz

Parents’ income →
Likelihood of
children’s enrolling
in college

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 6 Major Research Designs

• Research design: detailed plan or method for
obtaining data scientifically

–

Surveys

–

Ethnography

–

Experiments

– Existing sources

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Surveys

• Survey: study, generally interview or questionnaire,
that provides sociologists with information about
how people think and act

– Interview: researcher obtains information through
face-to-face, phone, or online questioning

– Questionnaire: researcher uses a printed or written form
to obtain information from a respondent

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Surveys (2)

• Quantitative research: collects and reports data
primarily in numerical form. We ask in this terms:
How many? How much? How often?

• Qualitative research: relies on what is seen in field
and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small
groups and communities. We use In-depth
interviews and direct observations and participation

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Ethnography

• Ethnography: study of an entire social setting through
extended systematic fieldwork. Qualitative , descriptive.

• Ethno: ppl & graphy: writing

• Observation: the basic technique of ethnography; direct
participation in closely watching a group or organization

– Ethnographic research also includes collecting historical
information and conducting in-person interviews

– Participant observation: method in which the sociologist joins a
group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates

– Street corner society, William F. Whyte .

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Experiments

• Experiment: artificially created situation that allows
a researcher to manipulate variables. The independent

variable is controlled.

– Experimental group: exposed to an independent variable

– Control group: not exposed to the independent variable

– Hawthorne effect: unintended influence of the observers
of experiments on the subjects. Western Electric CO
20/30s

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis: research techniques that make
use of previously collected and publicly accessible
information and data

– Considered nonreactive—not influencing people’s
behavior

– Durkheim’s data on suicide is an example of secondary
analysis

• Content analysis: systematic coding and objective
recording of data, guided by some rationale

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Table 6-2 Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Most Frequently Used Sources
• Census data

• Crime statistics

• Birth, death, marriage, divorce,
and health statistics

Other Sources
• Newspapers and periodicals

• Personal journals, diaries, e-mail, and letters

• Records and archival material of religious
organizations, corporations, and other
organizations

• Transcripts of radio programs

• Motion pictures and television programs

• Web pages, blogs, and chat rooms

• Song lyrics

• Scientific records (such as patent applications)

• Speeches of public figures (such as politicians)

• Votes cast in elections or by elected officials on
specific legislative proposals

• Attendance records for public events

• Videos of social protests and rallies

• Literature, including folklore

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Table 6-3 Major Research Designs
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.

Survey Ethnography Experiment
Existing sources/
Secondary analysis

Examples:
questionnaires,
interviews

Example: observation Example: deliberate
manipulation of
people’s social
behavior

Example: analysis of
census or health data

Advantage: Yields
information about
specific issues

Advantage: Yields
detailed information
about specific groups or
organizations

Advantage: Yields
direct measures of
people’s behavior

Advantage:
Cost-efficient

Limitation: Can be
expensive and time-
consuming

Limitation: Involves
months if not years of
labor-intensive data

Limitations: Ethical
limitations on the
degree to which
subjects’ behavior can
be manipulated

Limitation: Limited to
data collected for
some other purpose

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Module 7 Ethics of Research

• Code of ethics: standards of acceptable behavior
developed by and for members of a profession

• ASA’s Code of Ethics (1997)
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research

2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity

3. Protect subjects from personal harm

4. Preserve confidentiality

5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research
participants or when behavior occurs in a private context

6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance

7. Disclose all sources of financial support (1999)

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Value Neutrality

• Value neutrality: Max Weber’s term for objectivity
of sociologists in the interpretation of data

• Investigators have an ethical obligation to accept
research findings even when data run counter to
their personal views, to theoretically-based
explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs

©McGraw-Hill Education.

The Data-Rich Future

• Massive increases in available data allow sociologists
to undertake new research

– Housing issues in Boston

– Spread of influenza and other contagious diseases

– Crime patterns

• Increased data raises concerns about individual
privacy

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs

• Using Statistics

– Percentage: a portion of 100

– Mean: average; sum of a series of values divided by the
number of values. Always leans toward extreme score

– Mode: single most common value in a series of values.
Score that occurs the most times.

– Median: midpoint that divides a series of values into two
groups with equal numbers of values. To calculate the
median, scores must be arranged, then count down or up.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs (2)

• Reading Graphs

– Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data
and make it easier to develop conclusions

• Cross-tabulation: shows relationship between two or more
variables

– Graphs are often easier for the public to understand

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure A-2 Changing Attitudes
Toward the Legalization of Marijuana

A quick look at the results of 16 national surveys shows that support for legalization
of the drug has increased.

Source: Gallup 2014; see Jones and Saad. 2014.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure A-3 People Who Favor Legalization of
Marijuana by Political Affiliation and Age

Through cross-tabulation, we can quickly see that older people are less likely
to favor the legalization of marijuana than younger people, and that
Republicans are less supportive of legalization than Democrats.

Source: Gallup 2012; see Newport 2012.

©McGraw-Hill Education.

Appendix II:
Writing a Research Report

• Finding Information

– Check textbooks

– Use library’s online catalog

– Investigate computerized periodical indexes

– Examine government documents

– Use newspapers

– Ask people, organizations, and agencies concerned with
the topic

– Consult instructor or reference librarian

– Be cautious in using the Internet

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Review

• Sociologists are committed to the use of the
scientific method

• In this chapter:

– Basic principles of scientific method

– Various techniques used by sociologists in conducting
research