Dpsy assignment

1. Cover page
2. A literature gap: A description of the gap that you identified in the literature (Week 4)
3. An annotated bibliography of all 10 articles (Weeks 6–8)
4. An outline of your literature review (Week 9)
5. An overview of relevant theories (Identify theories that are referred to in your literature and provide a one-page description of one theory.) (Week 10)
6. References for any articles you cited (outside of the annotated bibliography)

2

Discussion

Student’s Name

Institutional Affiliation

Course Name

Due Date

One theory proposed to explain the gap in the literature on gender differences in academic performance is the stereotype threat theory. This theory suggests that people are affected by the expectations and beliefs that are held by society about their group. Specifically, it suggests that when people of a particular gender are aware of the negative stereotypes associated with their gender, they will experience increased anxiety and decreased academic performance (Maries et al., 2020). For example, if a female student knows that society generally believes that females are not as good at math as males, she may be more likely to feel anxious when taking a math test, which could lead to decreased performance.

The stereotype threat theory has been supported by research that has found that when gender stereotypes are made salient, women and other gender minorities tend to perform worse on tests and other tasks than when gender is not made salient. Furthermore, it has been found that when gender stereotypes are challenged and reframed, performance on tests and other tasks tends to improve (Maries et al., 2020). For example, some studies have found that when gender is not made salient, or when women are reminded that their gender does not determine their ability, their performance can improve.

There is evidence suggesting that the stereotype threat theory can help explain the gap in the literature on gender differences in academic performance. For example, it has been found that when gender stereotypes are made salient, women and other gender minorities tend to perform worse on tests and other tasks than when gender is not salient (Maries et al., 2020). Furthermore, when gender stereotypes are challenged, performance on tests and other tasks tends to improve.

In conclusion, the stereotype threat theory explains the gap in the literature on gender differences in academic performance. Through this theory, it can be seen that gender stereotypes can significantly impact performance and that these stereotypes can be challenged and reframed to improve performance. However, it is essential to note that this theory does not provide a complete explanation for the gap in the literature, and further research is needed to explore other potential explanations.

References

Maries, A., Karim, N. I., & Singh, C. (2020). Active Learning in an Inequitable Learning Environment Can Increase the Gender Performance Gap: The Negative Impact of Stereotype Threat.
The Physics Teacher,
58(6), 430–433. https://doi.org/10.1119/10.0001844

RUNNING HEAD: JOURNAL: CONNECTING TO YOUR DISSERTATION- IDENTIFYING GAPS IN THE LITERATURE2

Journal: Connecting to your Dissertation- Identifying Gaps in the Literature

Jailya J Wooden

Walden University

DPSY 8700

December 25, 2022

Trahan et al. (2018) presents an intersectional analysis of public opinion on capital punishment in the United States. The authors use American National Election Studies (ANES) data to examine how race, gender, and socioeconomic class interact to influence public opinion on capital punishment. The results showed that African American and Hispanic respondents were more likely than White respondents to oppose capital punishment. The authors also found that men and those with higher incomes were more likely to support capital punishment. The authors suggest that there are racial, gender, and class disparities in public opinion on capital punishment and that this is an important consideration when developing public policy on the issue. The article begins by noting that public opinion on capital punishment has been studied extensively, but few studies have addressed the issue from an intersectional perspective. The authors then review the existing literature on the subject and highlight several gaps in the literature (Trahan et al., 2018).

First, the authors note that few studies have examined the intersection of race, gender, and class and how they shape public opinion on capital punishment. They point out that existing studies have focused primarily on race or gender, but not both, and that almost no studies have considered the role of class in shaping public opinion on the issue. Second, the authors note that existing studies have relied on surveys that focus on a narrow set of questions and fail to consider the issue’s complexities. They also point out that surveys often fail to adequately capture the nuances of public opinion, such as how individuals’ views on capital punishment may be shaped by their experiences and beliefs (Trahan et al., 2018).

Third, the authors note that existing studies have primarily focused on white individuals’ attitudes toward capital punishment and that there is a need for research that examines the attitudes of individuals from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. They also note that the research has largely ignored the effects of gender and that there is a need for studies focusing on how gender influences public opinion on the issue (Trahan et al., 2018).

The fourth gap identified in the review article focuses on the inadequate research on the public’s opinion of the death penalty in cases of terrorism. As terrorism is an increasingly prevalent issue in the United States and worldwide, understanding public opinion on the death penalty in cases of terrorism is essential. By examining the public’s opinion in this context, researchers can gain insight into the potential implications of the death penalty in cases of terrorism and the potential ethical implications of this form of punishment (Trahan et al., 2018).

Additionally, the authors note that few studies have considered the influence of socioeconomic status on public opinion and that there is a need for research examining how individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds view capital punishment.

Overall, the review article “Public Opinion of Capital Punishment: An Intersectional Analysis of Race, Gender, and Class Effects” identifies several gaps in the existing literature on the public opinion of capital punishment. Existing studies have primarily focused on white individuals’ attitudes toward the issue. They have failed to consider the issue’s complexities, such as how individuals’ views on capital punishment may be shaped by their experiences and beliefs. Furthermore, existing studies have largely ignored the effects of gender and socioeconomic status, and there is a need for research that examines how individuals from different backgrounds view capital punishment. The authors also call for more research on the intersection of race, gender, and class and how they shape public opinion on capital punishment. By doing so, researchers can better understand how public opinion is shaped by different identities and backgrounds and can make more informed policy decisions.

Reference

Trahan, A., Dixon, A., & Nodeland, B. (2018). Public Opinion of Capital Punishment: An Intersectional Analysis of Race, Gender, and Class Effects.
Criminal Justice Review, 073401681881868. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016818818687

RUNNING HEAD: DEVELOPING AN OUTLINE2

Developing an Outline

Jailya Wooden

Walden University

DPSY 8700

January 28, 2023

I. Introduction

A. Definition of Capital Punishment

B. Overview of the prevalence of Capital Punishment

C. Overview of the legal and ethical implications of Capital Punishment

II. Deterrent Effects of Capital Punishment

A. The effects of capital punishment and the expected drop-in crime rate following execution were studied by A. Cloninger (1992).

B. Crime rate as determined by B. Decker and Kohfeld’s (1990) study on the death sentence.

C. The results of both research show that the death sentence does not effectively deter criminal behavior.

III. Racial Divide and Gender Gap in Death Penalty Support

A. Data from a poll of 524 college freshmen conducted by A. Godcharles, Rad, Heide, Cochran, and Solomon (2019) to gauge empathy and support for the death sentence.

B. The survey results show a negative correlation between empathy and support for capital punishment.

IV. Effects of the Death Penalty on Families of the Accused

A. The death penalty’s effects on the defendant’s loved ones are examined in detail by A. Sharp (2005).

B. A review of how the death sentence might affect the offender’s offspring in terms of their access to a quality education and career prospects.

V. Wrongful Conviction Rate and Death Penalty Support

A. In order to determine whether the prevalence of erroneous convictions influences people’s opinions on the death sentence, A. Wu (2022) polled over 1,500 persons in the United States.

B. The results of the study indicate that the number of people who are wrongfully convicted of a crime decreases the number of people who are in favor of the death sentence.

VI. Conclusion

A. A concise summary of the moral and factual arguments in favor of the usage of the death penalty

B. A Synopsis of the Research and Public Opinion Concerning Capital Punishment and Its Effect on the Families of Victims as Well as Public Opinion Concerning Capital Punishment

C. The repercussions of modifying the way the death sentence is carried out in the United States

2

Annotated Bibliography

Annotated Bibliography

Desai, A., & Garrett, B. L. (2018). The state of the death penalty. Notre Dame L. Rev., 94, 1255.

This article provides an overview of the current state of the death penalty in the United States. The authors examine the legal and empirical evidence of the death penalty and its application in the United States and other countries. They compare the efficacy of the death penalty to other forms of punishment and discuss the ethical implications of its use. The authors also discuss the potential for reform of the death penalty and the role of the Supreme Court in the application of the death penalty. Lastly, they explore the implications of the death penalty on the lives of individuals, communities, and society as a whole. The authors use legal, empirical, and ethical arguments to make their case for the reform of the death penalty and its application in the United States.

Godcharles, B. D., Rad, J. D., Heide, K. M., Cochran, J. K., & Solomon, E. P. (2019). Can empathy close the racial divide and gender gap in death penalty support? Behavioral sciences & the law, 37(1), 16-37.

This article examines the effects of empathy on the support for the death penalty in the United States. The authors focus on the racial divide and gender gap in death penalty support and assess whether empathy can bridge these gaps. To this end, the authors surveyed 524 undergraduate students in which they measured empathy and death penalty support. Then, they conducted a multiple regression analysis to explore the moderating effects of empathy on the racial divide and gender gap in death penalty support. The authors found that empathy did have a moderating impact on death penalty support, with higher levels of empathy associated with lower levels of death penalty support. The authors concluded that empathy could be used to reduce the racial divide and gender gap in death penalty support and, thus, can be used as a tool to reduce the support for the death penalty in the United States.

Kastellec, J. P. (2021). Race, context, and judging on the Courts of Appeals: Race-based panel effects in death penalty cases. Justice System Journal, 42(3-4), 394-415.

This article examines how the race of the defendant, the race of the judges, and the context of the case affect the likelihood of the defendant receiving the death penalty. The article looks at the data from the Courts of Appeals for death penalty cases from 1985 to 2003. The article finds that when a majority of the panel is Black, the probability of receiving the death penalty decreases, and when the defendant is Black, the probability of receiving the death penalty increases. The article also finds that the context of the case, such as the type of crime committed and the state in which it occurred, significantly affects the likelihood of receiving the death penalty. The article concludes that the race of the defendant and the judges, and the context of the case, all affect the likelihood of the defendant receiving the death penalty. This article is a valuable resource for discussing the effects of the death penalty in America, as it provides detailed evidence of the role race and context play in the likelihood of the defendant receiving the death penalty.

Sharp, S. F. (2005). Hidden victims: The effects of the death penalty on families of the accused. Rutgers University Press.

This book provides an in-depth analysis of the effects of the death penalty on the families of those accused of capital crimes. It investigates the death penalty’s legal, social, and psychological impacts on these families. Sharp considers the effects of the death penalty on the accused’s immediate family and other relatives, as well as their friends and neighbors. The author also discusses the effects of the death penalty on the accused’s children and how it can impact their educational and economic opportunities. The book is invaluable for understanding the human cost of the death penalty in America.

Wu, S. (2022). The effect of wrongful conviction rate on death penalty support: a research note. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 18(4), 871-884.

This study examines the effect of the wrongful conviction rate on public support for the death penalty in America. The authors surveyed more than 1,500 American adults to analyze how the wrongful conviction rate affects their support for the death penalty. The survey results showed a significant correlation between the wrongful conviction rate and support for the death penalty. The authors concluded that the higher the wrongful conviction rate, the lower the support for the death penalty. This study provides important insights into understanding the effects of the death penalty in America and the public’s attitude towards the death penalty. This research can inform policymakers on the public’s opinion of the death penalty to make more informed decisions.

________________________________________________________________________Week 7

Sorensen, J., & Pilgrim, R. L. (2006). 
Lethal injection: Capital punishment in Texas during the modern era. University of Texas Press.

In their study, Sorensen and Pilgrim (2006) identify that several state issues continue to attract a lot of national attention and controversy with the application of the death penalty in Texas. In the years following the death penalty was reestablished in 1976, Texas took the top position in the country in executing prisoners and reinforcing the death sentences. The rate at which Texas is implementing capital punishment continues to raise questions, and many scholars are starting to question the reason behind the persistence. Others explore whether the death penalty is producing any positive outcomes and whether the state has successfully eliminated perpetrators. Other scholars are questioning whether the rights of the citizens have trespassed during the implementation of the penalty and whether some people have been falsely accused. The authors identify that finding answers to these questions is essential, forming the primary objective of publishing this book by using rich information sources primarily from confidential prisoner records and numerous statistical sources. This will help challenge traditional preconceptions regarding guilt, deterrence, racial bias, and the implementation of capital punishment in this state.

Serrano, B. (2020). Stuck between Growing up and Grown up: Delaying the Sentencing Phase for Young Adults Facing Capital Punishment in Texas. 
Tex. Tech L. Rev., 
53, 843.

Serrano (2020) starts by recognizing that prior research has been indicating that there is future danger associated with the standard relied on by juries in Texas when deciding on whether a capital offender should be sentenced to death can contribute to inaccurate forecasting. The authors state that this is already challenging to reinforce the standard when capital offenders between 18 and 25 years come into view. The author also identifies that other studies found out that since the Supreme Court decided to put juveniles on death row no longer, the brain development of these young adults between 18 and 25 years differs from that of minors. The reason for this is that the juveniles lack brain maturity and the absence of impulse control, and the young defendants are found to maintain a certain level of propensity towards risky behaviors. These aspects make it challenging for a judging panel on capital cases to tell the difference between the traits that a particular person can be a “future danger” to society since these traits can improve with older years.

The authors also identify that some aspects utilized by prosecutors in proving that the defendant can be a future danger include expert testimony, criminal history, and character evidence. However, the author identifies that these pieces are insufficient in determining which individuals will be a threat and who will improve their behavior; therefore, age cannot be relied on while ruling out criminals. The author thus pinpoints that if the standard does not differentiate between criminals adequately, the judges are arbitrarily sentencing perpetrators to death row, which violates the 8th Amendment of the American constitution. According to this article, capital offenders undergo a different trial to assess their punishment. Therefore the courts in Texas must wait until the defendant attains the age of 25 years and then decide to execute the offender. This will ultimately make a prosecutor’s expert testimony, the defendant’s offense history, and character evidence more potent because they can assess the level of their brain development by analyzing their behavior while in the justice system.

________________________________________________________________________Week 8

Smith, P. (2022). Is the death penalty on the way out? More states are abolishing, fewer juries are handing down death sentences, and the number of executions is falling.
The New York Times

.

The article’s purpose was to introduce the issue of capital punishment in the form of the death sentence, whereby individuals have different arguments regarding whether the penalty should remain in practice. The article provides an example of a murder case where two individuals brutally murdered a woman, and her killers received the death sentence, which later was put on hold as the county in which they were going back to rethink the death penalty approach. The article is, therefore, relevant in its ability to depict how the death penalty works by providing an example of a case where the same was put into practice. However, it also provided the needed approach of outlining that the death penalty has widely reduced in support from an overwhelming 80% support in the 90s to 54% in 2021. This can be used to indicate a need for change in the reforms related to this area.

Cloninger, D. O. (1992). Capital punishment and deterrence: a portfolio approach.
Applied Economics, 24(6), 635-645.

The article sought to analyze the relationship between the impacts of the death sentence as capital punishment and the aftermath in terms of the expectation of a decline in crime rate to mean that by imparting capital punishment, the overall number of homicides was expected to decrease. However, the article noted that there were aspects that availed the needed environment for crimes to exist, even in cases where the death sentence was used as a tool of caution in any given society. This was further associated with the idea that there was no way of ensuring that the portfolio crime rate did not change or alter. In such a case, it was easier to assign that the death sentence alone could not be expected to resolve the idea of crime, especially homicides. This article would thus help rationalize the idea that the death sentence is not crucial in controlling crime, especially when it comes to homicides.

Decker, S. H., & Kohfeld, C. W. (1990). The deterrent effect of capital punishment in the five most active execution states A time series analysis.
Criminal Justice Review, 15(2), 173-191.

Similar to the second study, this study analyzed the death sentence’s effect on the overall crime rate with the hope that there could be a unique pattern or algorithm for the identification of the relationship between the existence of the death sentence and the number of crimes every year. However, it was noted that while the death penalty was a significant factor in many proceedings that involved homicides, it did not indeed bear great significance in the number of crimes committed each year. This meant that people were not genuinely controlled by such laws or possible sentencing in their overall decision-making regarding the idea of committing a crime. By this finding, the article argued that such a law was of no consequence to the need to reduce crime, particularly homicides. This article can therefore be used in articulating an approach to prove the lack of use of such punishment using a well-investigated and documented study that was conducted using years of data.

 

References

Cloninger, D. O. (1992). Capital punishment and deterrence: a portfolio approach.
Applied Economics, 24(6), 635-645.

Decker, S. H., & Kohfeld, C. W. (1990). The deterrent effect of capital punishment in the five most active execution states A time series analysis.
Criminal Justice Review, 15(2), 173-191.

Smith, P. (2022). Is the death penalty on the way out? More states are abolishing, fewer juries are handing down death sentences, and the number of executions is falling.
The New York Times.