Illustrate Trauma-Informed Teaching Practices and Interventions

Considering the knowledge learned from previous articles regarding trauma think of at least two trauma informed teaching practices and interventions that could be presented to educators or school principals. Reflect about at least one support person within the school who colud help assist educators with the practices or interventions. Examples include school social worker, school counselor, or a mental health professional to assist with the implementation of the trauma-informed teaching practices and interventions. See the attached articles below.

Trauma-informed practices in a laboratory
middle school

Heidi B. Von Dohlen, Holly H. Pinter, Kim K. Winter, Sandy Ward, & Chip Cody

Abstract

: This article explores how a laboratory middle school
(LMS) serving students from low-performing elementary
schools and students with academic or social-emotional chal-
lenges is developing as a trauma-responsive school. The
authors explore the literature, school/community context, stu-
dent cases, and the ways in which classroom and school-wide
practices are trauma-informed. Trauma-informed practices
focus on individual students as well as whole classroom and
school-wide initiatives, potentially benefiting all, not only those
students experiencing trauma. At LMS, a community of care
system, evaluation committee, tribe and village meetings, the
democratic classroom approach, project-based learning, as well
as focused enrichment and remediation are all initiatives that
have demonstrated some success. Documentation of such
successes merits exploration in other middle schools. The LMS
team seeks to understand and implement highest leverage
practice as students are challenged academically, their socio-
emotional needs are supported, and resiliency is built not only
in the classroom but also in the lives of the young adolescents
themselves.

Keywords: democratic classrooms, middle schools, social-emo-
tional, trauma-informed practices, trauma-responsive

This We Believe characteristics:

● Educators value young adolescents and are prepared to
teach them.

● The school environment is inviting, safe, inclusive, and
supportive of all.

“One out of every 4 children attending school has been
exposed to a traumatic event that can affect learning and/or
behavior” (The National Child Traumatic Stress Network,
2008, p. 4).

Understanding and responding to the developmental
needs of young adolescents has long been the bedrock of
the middle school concept. As stated in This We Believe
(National Middle School Association [NSMA], 2010), “The
curriculum, pedagogy, and programs of middle grades
schools must be based upon the developmental readiness,
needs, and interests of young adolescents” (p. 5). The Every
Student Succeeds Act (2015) opened the door for state and
local policy makers to address safety and mental health
issues, which includes trauma, on a more substantial level.
This includes providing tools, funding, and organizational
infrastructure to assist students, and providing learning
supports for them to succeed.

Schools struggle to adequately support students experi-
encing trauma, adversely impacting students’ learning and
social success. School officials and policy makers must first
seek to understand the impact of trauma, and then provide
support to mitigate the negative impacts trauma has on our
students (McInerney & McKlindon, 2014). The National
Association for School Psychologists (NASP, 2015) reported
children spend much of their day in school where caring
adults are available to help them. Therefore, schools have
important roles to play in providing a stable safe space for
children and connecting them to caring adults. For schools to
be trauma-responsive, however, educators must observe and
respond to classroom behaviors through a different lens
(Terassi & de Galarce, 2017).

Cole, Eisner, Gregory, and Ristuccia (2013) asserted if
educators had at least a foundational knowledge of the
research on trauma, they would not only be able to opti-
mally support students in trauma, but also those impacted
by their peers’ trauma. Trauma-responsive educators are
present and focused with their students, aware of students’

6 Middle School Journal September 2019

body language and non-verbal cues, calm in their interac-
tions with students, remain positive even when students
are off-task, provide structured routines, and de-escalate
students’ emotions while remaining in control of their
own emotions (Walkley & Cox, 2013).

This article explores how a laboratory middle school
(LMS) serving students from low-performing elementary
schools and students with academic or social-emotional
challenges is developing as a trauma-responsive school. The
authors explore the literature, school/community context,
three students’ cases, and the ways in which classroom and
school-wide practices are trauma-informed.

Review of literature

In 1998, a study at Kaiser Permanente in California on adverse
childhood experiences (ACEs) and childhood trauma and
their relationship to health risk behavior, disease, and early
death in adulthood (Felitti et al., 1998) shocked theworld and
precipitated more research into the field of the long-term
impacts of trauma on children. The Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) defined
trauma as “an event, series of events, or set of circumstances
that is experienced by an individual as physically or emotion-
ally harmful or life threatening and that has lasting adverse
effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical,
social, emotional, or spiritual well-being” (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Services Administration, 2018, p. 7). According to The
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN, 2008),
children and adolescents experience trauma when they have
persistent reactions to the trauma affecting their daily lives
even after the event or situation has ended.

Three main types of trauma include acute, chronic,
and complex. The NCTSN’s Complex Trauma Task Force,
a collective of professionals representing a dozen univer-
sities, hospitals, trauma centers, and health programs
across the United States first explored he term complex
trauma in 2003. This term emerged from the recognition
that many people experience multiple adversities over the
course of their lifetime (National Child Traumatic Stress
Network Schools Committee, 2008). Some examples of
trauma cited by NASP (2015) include violence, abuse,
neglect, terrorism, and traumatic loss.

In a longitudinal study conducted on rural adoles-
cents, researchers found two out of every three children
had experienced a traumatic event by their 16th birthday
(Copeland, Keeler, Angold, & Costello, 2007), and “one in

five adolescents has had a serious mental health disorder,
such as depression and/or anxiety disorders, at some
point in their life” (U.S. Department of Health & Human
Services Office of Adolescent Health, 2017a). Students
exposed to trauma experience higher levels of depression,
anxiety, and other impairments (Copeland et al., 2007).

Despite clear scientific evidence, our education system
has largely ignored issues related to trauma and learning
(McInerney & McKlindon, 2014); however, neurobiologi-
cal research proves exposure to childhood trauma causes
brain and hormonal changes and impedes learning and
social-emotional development in children and adolescents
(Judicial Council of California, 2014; Urban Education
Institute, 2017). Trauma can negatively impact grades,
absences, and reading ability, while increasing discipline
issues leading to suspensions and expulsions. Trauma
impairs learning by negatively impacting attention, mem-
ory, cognition, focus, and organization. Additionally,
trauma can cause physical and emotional stress in students
such as headaches or stomach aches, poor control of
emotions, and unpredictable behaviors (National Child
Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee, 2008).

Schools often identify trauma when a student
demonstrates aggressive behavior. Schools are primarily
reactive to students experiencing trauma after a significant
behavioral incident occurs; however, educators can help
prevent aggressive behavior by “ … being aware of stu-
dents’ emotional states and responding with proactive de-
escalation classroom management practices. Actions as
simple as greeting students at the door and asking them to
complete a daily mood chart can help teachers under-
stand and react better to students’ behavior” (Urban
Education Institute, 2017, p. 21). Trauma-responsive edu-
cational practices acknowledge schools as safe spaces with
trusting relationships between students and educators,
understand trauma and how trauma impacts children’s
brain development and behavior, utilize proactive beha-
vioral supports, de-escalate challenging student behaviors,
and keep students in the classroom (Walkley & Cox,
2013), and support educators to utilize self-care to miti-
gate the impact of trauma-related stress on themselves
(Jennings, 2019).

It is important to note that not all experiences of
trauma lead to a traumatic response or trauma-related
disorder or diagnosis. But when signs and symptoms of
traumatic stress endure over time (one month or longer),
disrupt a child’s or adult’s daily life, impact their social
and emotional health, and meet specific diagnostic

www.amle.org 7

criteria, the impacts of trauma can be far reaching
(National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools
Committee, 2008). For youth involved with the juvenile
justice system, the prevalence of youth exposed to com-
plex trauma is believed to be higher than their same-aged
peers (Judicial Council of California, 2014; Wolpaw &
Ford, 2004). One study found over 90% of juvenile detai-
nees reported having experienced at least one traumatic
event (Arroya, 2001). Children experiencing poverty are
especially susceptible to experiencing multiple adverse
experiences (McInerney & McKlindon, 2014).

The NCTSN (2008) identified observable behaviors
for middle school students experiencing trauma. Some of
these behaviors included anxiety, fear, and worry; irrit-
ability; angry outbursts; withdrawal; increased absentee-
ism; changes in academic performance; avoidance
behaviors; over- or under-reacting to physical contact,
sudden movement, and noises such as bells or doors
slamming. Additionally, the NCTSN cautions educators to
also be aware of students who may not demonstrate overt
symptoms of trauma, and therefore, do not receive the
support they need. With support, students can recover
from trauma within a few weeks or months, while others
require support to heal over a longer period of time.

Childhood trauma can have a negative impact on
many parts of students’ lives including academic pro-
blems, behavioral issues, emotional problems, and tru-
ancy. These negative impacts, combined with mental
health or substance abuse make students much more
likely to become court-involved (Judicial Council of
California, 2014). Trauma can also significantly alter our
brain’s function and the high levels of stress triggered by
trauma can impede development (Judicial Council of
California, 2014; Walkley & Cox, 2013)). Terrasi and de
Galarce (2017) found a strong likelihood that added stress
compromises a child’s executive functioning abilities.
Without the full development of executive functions, stu-
dents will struggle with concentration, language acquisi-
tion and processing, decision making, and memory.
Children in trauma often experience deficiencies in
abstract reasoning, impulsiveness, and developmental
coordination disorder (Damian, Knieling, & Ioan, 2011).

Just as trauma may impair cognitive functioning, it
may also lead to difficulties with social and behavioral
functioning which manifest as often-misunderstood beha-
vioral problems in the classroom. Students may display
impulsive, aggressive, or defiant behaviors. Such beha-
vioral difficulties may result in harsh disciplinary practices,

involvement of the justice system, or school dropout-par-
ticularly as schools struggle to accurately assess and iden-
tify trauma and the associated symptoms (Smithgall,
Cusick, & Griffin, 2013). Schools are two times more likely
to retain students experiencing trauma. They also score
lower on standardized tests and are more likely to be
placed in special education programs (Cole et al., 2013).

Although trauma can have negative effects on stu-
dents’ development and functioning, adolescents can be
resilient with support from caring educators in safe school
settings (Judicial Council of California, 2014). Although
no single program exists to promote resiliency in youth,
schools, along with other family and community efforts,
can play a role by providing effective interventions and
approaches which foster resilience in trauma-exposed
youth (Moore, 2013). Schools can be trauma-sensitive by
maintaining routines and giving students choices. Clear
behavioral expectations and recognition of behavioral
issues can help to mitigate disruptions to learning. Schools
and educators can help by providing a safe place for
students and developing awareness of environmental cues
which may trigger a traumatized student. Shortened
assignments, allowing additional time to complete assign-
ments, and providing support for organization are other
ways educators can mitigate the effects of trauma for
students (National Child Traumatic Stress Network
Schools Committee, 2008).

Finally, the National Child Traumatic Stress Network
Schools Committee (2008) cautions educators who work
with traumatized students to be aware of compassion fati-
gue since working directly with children experiencing
trauma can cause secondary traumatic stress to profes-
sionals. Educators should resist working in professional
isolation by seeking support from peers while maintaining
confidentiality of the students. And one of the most
important steps an educator can take is to seek help with
his or her own personal traumas, and practice self-care.

School background & connection to whole
school, whole community, whole child

Our state, regional university (SRU) designed and cur-
rently operates a laboratory middle school (LMS) for 6th,
7th, and 8th grades as a school within a school in a local
high school building. The SRU designed LMS in partner-
ship with the local school system to explore innovative
teaching approaches and applied learning opportunities
that will help every student discover his or her full

8 Middle School Journal September 2019

academic potential. At the beginning of the second year of
service, LMS framed the scope and context of needs, data,
and direction in the fact that no historical trends had yet
been established. Congruent with research on trauma-
sensitive schools by Craig (2016), LMS is working toward
development as a trauma-responsive school focusing on
safety, empowerment through choice, and collaborative
partnerships between students, faculty, and staff.

School/student demographics

State legislation guiding laboratory schools dictates that
students must meet certain qualifications to be enrolled,
including residency in the county in which the school is
located, previous enrollment in a low-performing school,
or student identification as not meeting growth through
various criteria (such as test scores, grades, or lack of
achievement gain). Students may also meet an additional
low performance category which includes a myriad of
criteria: met end-of-grade proficiency, but earned poor
grades; labeled twice exceptional as eligible for special
education services; exhibited extreme behavioral issues;
demonstrated lack of growth progress over time and/or
did not meet growth targets; experienced social-emo-
tional issues or contextual factors such as trauma, familial
issues, etc.

LMS is located in a rural county with a population
over 43,000; the state, regional university is its biggest
employer. The population is majority white at 83%, while
Native American is the largest minority group with almost
10%. The projected median household income is
approximately $42,000. Eighty-eight percent of adults in
the county have a high school diploma or greater, and
30% of adults have a bachelor’s degree or higher.

The current enrollment of LMS is 56 students: 22
females and 34 males. Approximately 75% of LMS stu-
dents were enrolled previously in county public schools
and 25% were either home schooled or enrolled in
another school district. Approximately 76.8% of students
identify as White, non-Hispanic; 14.3% identify as multi-
racial; 5.4% Native American; 3.5% Hispanic; and none
who identify as African American or Asian American. In
addition, 21.4% of the LMS population is labeled as
Exceptional Children (i.e., special education), 4% have
504 plans, 9% are gifted (several of these students are
twice-exceptional, meaning they receive both EC and
gifted services), and 48% receive free or reduced lunch.

Climate/school culture

The culture of the school reflects the collaboration with
SRU by accessing resources and personnel. LMS students
have access to daily health and physical education, regular
music and arts activities, leadership experiences, and
mentorship from experts in a variety of academic fields.
Some SRU academic programs that support activities
reach well beyond teacher education, including parks and
recreation, international programs, music, theater and
studio arts, engineering, school counseling, as well as
business and leadership. These enrichment activities and
clubs encourage students to learn more about themselves
and others, as well as contribute to the school community.
Collaboration with the local high school and SRU exposes
the students to high school-aged students as well university
interns and volunteers. SRU has strong partnerships with
the local community as well as the Eastern Band of
Cherokee Indians (EBCI) since the campus is located on
Cherokee land.

Significant barriers

One significant barrier to wellness for adolescents is lack
of mental health services. Deficiency in services is largely
due to the stigma and cultural norms associated with
psychotherapy or counseling. Furthermore, rural areas in
the United States, much like the setting of LMS, have
fewer adolescent psychiatrists (U.S. Department of Health
& Human Services Office of Adolescent Health, 2017b)
and adolescents living in these areas are less likely to
receive mental health services than adolescents living in
urban areas (Lipari, Hedden, Blau, & Rubenstein, 2016).

As a university laboratory school working in coopera-
tion with the local county school system, LMS is located
within the local high school campus. SRU’s partner school
system provides the physical space, bus transportation,
food services, technology support for student devices, and
classroom instructional technology as part of
a memorandum of agreement and lease between the uni-
versity and school system. With space at a premium, it is
often difficult to reserve locations for smaller groups,
which is a need for diagnostic assessments, school coun-
seling sessions, speech language or physical therapy, tar-
geted academic interventions, and enrichment activities.
These barriers, at times, hinder professional services
available to students. Because of the space needs, SRU and
the local school system have expanded the partnership to
include a large, additional space for reservation within the

www.amle.org 9

high school. This redesigned space now includes
a classroom of 15 to 25 students, a conference area, small
group tables and chairs, and more. Our hope is that this
newly available space will at least partially address space as
a barrier.

Student cases

The authors present three students below who exhibit
behaviors associated with trauma. The cases articulate the
student experiences and illustrate varied strategies that
educators may employ when working with students
experiencing trauma. These young adolescent students
come from different backgrounds and their behaviors
manifest in unique ways within the day-to-day life of
school. One year into the existence of LMS, various ele-
ments of success have emerged for each of these students.
LMS staff and SRU faculty stakeholders have explored new
systems of support. Even though challenges still exist,
classroom, school-wide and specific, individually-focused
trauma-informed practices help students navigate their
middle school experiences and increase resiliency within
the school day.

Damien. Damien is a highly mobile student who
changes schools about every two years usually associated
with his ever-changing home life structure. At the end of
any given school day Damien and his teachers are often
uncertain as to which caregivers’ home he will return.
There are daily questions about who, if anyone, will be
there to greet Damien. When at his father’s house,
Damien reports that he is left alone to either work at his
father’s business or to care for his two young siblings.
While Damien reports having a good relationship with his
mother, she lives farther away and is not a consistent
presence in his life. Their relationship seems to consist of
friendship rather than a parent/child dynamic. Damien’s
grandmother is a consistent and supportive adult in his
life. Teachers readily note when Damien stays with her, he
shows up to school in clean clothes with a healthy lunch,
which is not common with mom or dad.

At his previous schools, Damien was in the office or
in-school-suspension more often than in the classroom.
Although he has well above average academic abilities,
Damien struggles in the context of a traditional classroom.
He meticulously analyzes most elements of the classroom,
from the activities to the way teachers interact with him,
and he constantly questions why systems exist and why
systems which to him, hold no logic or value constrain

him. Damien often gets frustrated when he feels as if
teachers are not considering his ideas or questions and he
often characterizes his teachers’ verbal interactions with
and toward him as dismissive. Damien’s frequent absences
seem to make him feel endlessly lost in class, as if despite
his best efforts, he is consistently behind. He has limited
coping mechanisms for frustrations, and continuing vio-
lent, aggressive, verbal outbursts typically result in
Damien’s removal from the classroom. LMS teachers
continue to work to find solutions to deescalate Damien’s
explosive, verbal reactions to frustration.

Damien has historically struggled in his relationship
with his teachers. There are moments where LMS faculty
perceive his words as threatening and hurtful.
Nevertheless, he is a 13-year-old boy with cognitive abilities
well-beyond his years despite an unstable family support
network and an inability to communicate in a calm man-
ner. Teachers have worked closely with mental health
professionals, the school interventionist, his caregivers,
and each other to consistently support Damien’s needs.
Ongoing interventions range from attempts to meet basic
needs, such as making sure the snack pantry is stocked
when Damien arrives at school hungry to those strategies
targeted at his academic needs, such as implementation of
a 504 Plan in his second year at LMS. Teachers look for
ways to communicate with Damien during instruction in
order to maximize positive interactions. They talk as
a team to pinpoint triggers that elicit heightened struggles
during instruction, and experiment with communication
strategies that might diffuse these tense situations
(including avoidance of certain words or phrases). For
example, if Damien gets frustrated during discussion, tea-
chers have found general coping mechanisms such as
“take a deep breath,” or “I hear what you are saying,”
exacerbate Damien’s frustrations rather than diffuse
them.

Julie. Julie is an eighth-grade student who has
experienced multiple sources of trauma that contribute to
her struggles in school. Julie’s grandmother primarily
supports her as her mother does not have the financial
means to support Julie in addition to her other children.
Physical challenges throughout Julie’s life have led to
multiple surgeries to help her walk. While her physical
condition limits her at times, she can participate in most
activities provided by LMS. In her prior schools, Julie was
reported to exhibit attention-seeking behaviors by
engaging peers negatively, stealing items from peers and
teachers, and disengaging from academics. Teachers

10 Middle School Journal September 2019

perceive Julie as guarded and they attribute this
characteristic to Julie’s personal experiences outside of
school. She does not trust others easily and will put on
a “tough girl” facade at times. This is sometimes
problematic in her interactions with other students who
see her actions as mean and hurtful. She has suffered
bullying for many years and her coping mechanism is to
bully others. Beyond the physical and social challenges she
endures, Julie also requires an Individualized Education
Program to provide academic support in reading, writing,
and mathematics instruction, as well as physical therapy
on a bi-monthly basis.

In Julie’s case, teachers at LMS have found the most
beneficial way to support her is through relationship-
building. While this is often true with adolescents, the
behaviors attributed to the trauma in Julie’s life make
personal relationships key to making strides toward aca-
demic and social goals. Teachers have found small-group
instruction whenever possible best meets this need.
Additionally, the school has worked hard to create
opportunities for Julie to be involved in developmentally
appropriate social activities. Julie has developed a strong
relationship with the physical education teacher. Because
of this relationship, Julie has joined the school’s Girls on
the Run (n.d.) club that integrates running with building
confidence and empowering adolescent girls. Julie
recently participated in a 5K race and is also active in the
theater elective.

Nate. Nate also has a set of unique attributes
impacting his school experiences. He comes from a large
family structure including both parents, three siblings,
grandparents, and several other women he refers to as
“step-moms.” Nate’s family struggles financially and his
mother is a full-time student at a local community college.
Despite challenges, Nate’s family really desires success for
the children and all family members try to support each
other whenever possible. One of Nate’s largest barriers to
success in prior school years has been a lack of impulse
control. He is animated and energetic, and these qualities
have contributed to disciplinary issues. One incident even
involved Nate running away from school. In the first weeks
working with Nate, teachers found him to be fiercely
protective and loyal to his friends, excited about learning,
but unorganized. With the school’s commitment to social
and emotional development, teachers made intentional
efforts to utilize positive framing and language techniques
to recognize Nate’s strengths. In terms of academics, the
teachers recognized the need to push and challenge Nate

because keeping him engaged in learning would diffuse
some of the negative behaviors exhibited in school. In year
two, the teachers highlight Nate as one of the biggest
success stories: he has emerged as a leader among his
peers, he is respectful in the classroom, and he is
challenged academically as one of a select few students
who participate in Math 1, a high school level course. Nate
has indicated he notices the teachers at LMS are more
accepting of a variety of students than what he has
observed at former schools. Additionally, he appears to
have benefitted from a wider range of academic choices
and has indicated he feels more supported in this new
environment.

Implementation of
trauma-informed practices
Schools utilizing a whole-school approach of trauma-respon-
sive practices, including democratic processes, validate the
voices of allmembers of the school community and promote
healthy relationships and resilience in children (Blitz, Yull, &
Clauhs, 2016). SAMHSA identified trauma-informed organi-
zations as those that realize the impact of trauma, recognize
the signs of trauma, respond by integrating knowledge about
trauma into policies, procedures, and practices, and seek to
actively resist re-traumatization (2018). SAMHSA also identi-
fied six key principles of a trauma-informed approach: “ …
safety, trustworthiness and transparency; peer support; colla-
boration and mutuality; empowerment, voice, and choice;
and cultural, historical, and gender issues” (2018, p. 10).
These six principles are evident in the structures LMS has
established to create a trauma-informed school. Some of the
structures LMS utilizes to engage and support students aca-
demically and social-emotionally are: A Community of Care
Committee, an evaluation committee, daily homeroom
meetings, monthly whole school meetings, student govern-
ment, democratic classrooms, project-based learning, and
individual intervention and enrichment activities. We
describe these structures below.

The community of care

LMS adopted the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development (ASCD, 2014) Whole School,
Whole Community, Whole Child model as a framework for
creating collaborative school/community relationships
and improving the learning and health of all students.
From this framework the development of a Community

www.amle.org 11

of Care is evolving in which laboratory school personnel,
college of education faculty, and community-based pro-
fessionals coordinate supports to address students’ aca-
demic, physical, and social-emotional needs. The goal of
the Community of Care is to create a greater alignment
between academic performance, health, and social-emo-
tional development to provide a framework for creating
school-community relationships focused on integrated
services. SRU graduate counseling students, overseen by
SRU Counseling Faculty, facilitate whole groups and
provide individual counseling to students. Whole group
sessions focus on topics such as social-emotional growth,
conflict resolution, decision-making, goal setting, and
peer interactions. In particular, the Community of Care
seeks to emphasize the following core values: (1) utilizing
experiential learning to guide students toward deep
understanding; (2) focusing on health and well-being,
specifically social and emotional development; (3)
building a democratic community and embracing social
justice; (4) developing cultural responsiveness within and
outside of the learning community; (5) embracing the
ideals of student-centered assessment; and (6) building
family and community alliances.

The evaluation committee

An SRU faculty member leads an evaluation committee
to inform academic and social-emotional initiatives at
LMS. One instrument used by LMS is the REACH
(Relationships, Effort, Aspirations, Cognition, Heart)
survey (Search Institute, 2018) to collect data on stu-
dents’ motivation to learn. REACH identifies social and
emotional learning factors. The evaluation team, com-
prised of LMS and SRU faculty, review the data col-
lected. The team uses this data to better understand
motivational and inhibiting factors of student success,
and thus provide direction for the implementation of
practices in the school. These practices have a direct
impact on the day-to-day interactions between all adults
and students at LMS and are especially beneficial for the
academic and social-emotional growth of students
experiencing trauma like Damien, Julie, and Nate.

Democratic classrooms

LMS implemented Democratic Classrooms and Positive
Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) this year.

Building upon the work of Guldbrandsen (1998), LMS
defines a democratic classroom as a place where students
are regularly involved in decision-making processes regard-
ing the classroom learning environment. Those decisions
can include creating classroom rules and expectations,
determining student and teacher responsibilities, and set-
ting the goals and objectives of the class. A significant focus
of PBIS has been helping students to build autonomy and
empowering students through multiple opportunities such
as student government and student jobs.

To begin the school year, students created lists of jobs
for the classroom and they applied for jobs best suited to
their individual strengths and interests. This structure
empowers students to run the classroom and practice
accountability as well as emphasizes student commitment to
success. In the first month of school, each grade level spent
time building their PBIS matrices as a group with input
from students and teachers. Students also contributed their
own ideas for incentives and rewards using a token econ-
omy. This system allows students like Damien and Nate to
have a vested interest and autonomy in the school struc-
ture, helping them to feel validated and supported.

A tangent of democratic classrooms—giving students
and caregivers voice in their education—is the imple-
mentation of student led conferences. These conferences
provide students with an opportunity to share and
demonstrate responsibility for their progress as well as
engage students and caregivers in conversations about
school and learning. If caregivers are unable to attend, an
LMS or SRU faculty member attends in their place.

Tribe (homeroom) morning meetings. Every morning,
teachers facilitate a morning meeting with the whole class to
review expectations and set goals for the day. Key tenants for
the morning meetings are communication, cooperation,
collaboration, and community. On Fridays, homerooms have
extended tribe meetings to review suggestion box items and
discuss emerging issues or problems from the week. Topics of
discussion include peer conflict, drama, missed deadlines,
problem behaviors, and organization. Tribemeetings are part
of a democratic classroom process in which teachers and
students talk about issues and solutions as a group. Student
Government representatives also record notes and report
back to their respective grade levels. This year, SRU student
teaching interns also participated in tribe meetings to make
sure practicing teachers were informed of student issues and
all adults were working collaboratively to provide consistency

12 Middle School Journal September 2019

in approach, particularly when SRU aspiring teachers were
working with LMS students.

Village (whole school) meetings. The principal,
teachers, students, and interns meet as a whole school once
a month for a “village meeting.” Topics discussed affect the
whole school including whole-school opportunities and
announcements. This is a time to make sure everyone shares
a common understanding of the direction and goals of the
school. Examples of topics addressed at village meetings are
mission statements, culture surveys, data tracking, social skills
training, troubleshooting strategies, and classroom and whole
school incentives. Teachers document effective
communication and conflict resolution strategies through
t-charts constructed with students. Student government
representatives deliver a full report to the student body.
Additionally, as the need arises during the month, the school
holds village meetings where the entire school gathers for
lunch.

Project-based learning

The allure of Project-based learning (PBL) is in its
authenticity: students are collecting data and skills from
several sources and assimilating them to answer
a driving question in a unique way. Projects begin with
a driving question developed by the teacher to address
the educational and skills standards (Hmelo-Silver,
2013). The question must be relevant and timely for the
students because it provides the framework and motiva-
tion for learning. The teachers introduce the PBL with
an entrance event which consists of a “hook” or exam-
ple, and outlines the driving question and expectations
for the project. The expectations include rubrics and
timelines for students to structure their work. The stu-
dents then work collaboratively to address the driving
problem, establish goals, assign individual roles, and
conduct research. In this context, the students are
leading their own learning. The teacher provides sup-
port through varied formative assessments and activities
with scaffolded content and skills knowledge. At the end
of the PBL, students present their artifacts to an audi-
ence. The students reflect on their process and talk
about what they created, how they learned, and any next
steps they intend to take. PBL allows all students to
engage in learning that is relevant to them and it par-
ticularly meets the needs of students experiencing
trauma like Damien and Nate, who respond to student
choice.

Intervention and enrichment

LMS’s intervention and enrichment committee is com-
prised of LMS and SRU faculty. The committee meets
weekly and identifies students in need of specific services.
SRU teacher education majors come once a week and
provide targeted intervention support for students in read-
ing. An SRU Special Education faculty member and
a Professor of Psychology also support this effort to monitor
academic progress and LMS student attitudes towards the
support and interactions with the undergraduate students.
For students like Julie, remediation and enrichment time is
a key feature to engage her interests and strengths, which
supports her overall feelings about school. LMS and SRU
faculty provide enrichment activities for academically gifted
and excelling students once a week as well.

Areas for future research

Middle schools can continue to add to the research base for
trauma-responsive practices by documenting interventions,
approaches, and initiatives used to support and educate
trauma-exposed youth. The community of care system, tribe
and village meetings, democratic classrooms, project-based
learning, and focused enrichment are initiatives with indica-
tors of initial success at LMS. These trauma-informed prac-
tices merit exploration in other middle schools. Trauma-
informed practices are focused to meet individual student’s
needs, and are also classroom and school-wide initiatives that
meet the socioemotional needs of all students. More research
is needed to find the highest leverage practices when it comes
to trauma-informed practices.

Trauma-informed practices are focused to meet
individual student’s needs, and are also classroom
and school-wide initiatives that meet the socioe-
motional needs of all students.

Conclusion

Indicators of trauma-responsive schools have significant over-
lap with the essential attributes outlined in This We Believe
(NSMA, 2010), particularly in terms of climate and culture of
school as well as curricular choices. Some necessary features
of trauma-responsive schools have long been part of the mis-
sion of AMLE.Many informed educators would argue trauma-
responsive practices are simply “good teaching.” Certainly,

www.amle.org 13

trauma-informed pedagogy is good for all students. At any
time in a child’s life, particularly in middle school, children
experience challenges that trauma-responsive practices can
likely help to ameliorate the negative impacts of in the class-
room. However, for our schools to continue being develop-
mentally responsive, challenging, empowering, and
equitable, educators need to engage in practices through
a trauma-informed lens.

for our schools to continue being developmentally
responsive, challenging, empowering, and equita-
ble, educators need to engage in practices through
a trauma-informed lens.

It is through intentional training and utilization of trauma-
informed practices that educators can continue to refine
practices as we strive to challenge our students academically
and support students’ social-emotional needs while simulta-
neously building resiliency in the classroom and in students’
lives.

References

Arroyo, W. (2001). PTSD in children and adolescents in the juvenile

justice system. In S. Eth (Ed.), Review of psychiatry, Vol. 20, no. 1.
PTSD in children and adolescents (pp. 59–86). Arlington, VA:
American Psychiatric Association.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (2014).
Whole school, whole community, whole child: A collaborative
approach to learning and health. Retrieved from http://www.
ascd.org/programs/learning-and-health/wscc-model.aspx

Blitz, L. V., Yull, D., & Clauhs, M. (2016). Bringing sanctuary to
school: Assessing school climate as a foundation for culturally
responsive trauma-informed approaches for urban schools.
Urban Education, 45(4), 630–660.

Cole, S. F., Eisner, A., Gregory, M., & Ristuccia, J. (2013). Helping
traumatic children learn: Creating and advocating for trauma-sensitive
schools. Boston: Massachusetts Advocates for Children.

Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2007).
Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives Of
General Psychiatry, 64(5), 577–584. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.577

Craig, S. E. (2016). Trauma-sensitive schools: Learning communities trans-
forming children’s lives, K-5. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Damian, S. I., Knieling, A., & Ioan, B. G. (2011). Post-traumatic stress
disorder in children. Overview and case study. Romanian Society Of
Legal Medicine, 19(2), 135–140. doi:10.4323/rjlm.2011.135

ESSA. (2015). Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-95
§ 114 Stat. 1177 (2015-2016).

Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F.,
Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of
childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the
leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood
Experience (ACE) study. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine,
14(4), 245–258.

Girls on the Run. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.girlsontherun.
org/What-We-Do/6th-8th-Grade-Program

Guldbrandsen, M. C. (1998). A democratic approach to class-
room management. Classroom Leadership, 2, 1. Retrieved
from http://www.ascd.org/publications/classroom-leader
ship/sept1998/A-Democrat ic -Approach- to -Classroom-
Management.aspx

Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2013). Creating a learning space in
problem-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based
Learning, 7(1), 24–39. doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1334

Jennings, P. A. (2019). The trauma-sensitive classroom: Building resilience
with compassionate teaching. New York, NY: W. W. Norton and
Company.

Judicial Council of California. (2014). The effects of complex trauma
on youth. Administrative Office of the Courts. Retrieved from
http://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/effects-complex-trauma-
on-youth-briefing

Lipari, R. N., Hedden, S., Blau, G., & Rubenstein, L. (2016). The
CBHSQ report: Adolescent mental health service use and reasons for using
services in specialty, educational, and general medical settings.
Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and
Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration. Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/data/
sites/default/files/report_1973/ShortReport-1973.html

McInerney, M., & McKlindon, A. (2014). Unlocking the door to
learning: Trauma-informed classrooms & transformational
schools. Education Law Center. Retrieved from http://www.cod
manacademy.org/PDF/Trauma-Informed-in-Schools-Classrooms-
FINAL-December2014-2

Moore, J. (2013). Research summary: Resilience and at-risk children
and youth. National Center for Homeless Education. Retrieved
from https://nche.ed.gov/downloads/resilience

National Association of School Psychologists. (2015). Trauma: Brief facts
and tips. Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/resources-and-
publications/resources/school-safety-and-crisis/trauma

National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee.
(2008). Child trauma toolkit for educators. Los Angeles, CA and
Durham, NC: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress.
Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/resources/child-trauma-
toolkit-educators

National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to
educating young adolescents. Westerville, Ohio: Author.

Search Institute. (2018). REACH survey. Retrieved from http://reach.
search-institute.org/why-reach/

Smithgall, C., Cusick, G., & Griffin, G. (2013). Responding to students
affected by trauma: Collaboration across public systems. Family
Court Review, 51(3), 401–408. doi:10.1111/fcre.2013.51.issue-3

Terrasi, S., & de Galarce, P. C. (2017). Trauma and learning in
America’s classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(6), 35–41.
doi:10.1177/0031721717696476

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Office of Adolescent
Health. (2017a). Mental health in adolescents. Retrieved from
https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/mental-
health/index.html

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Office of Adolescent
Health. (2017b). Access to adolescent mental health care.
Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-devel
opment/mental-health/access-adolescent-mental-health-care/
index.html

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Administration. (2018). SAMHSA’s
concept of trauma and guidance for trauma-informed approach.

14 Middle School Journal September 2019

http://www.ascd.org/programs/learning-and-health/wscc-model.aspx

http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.577

http://dx.doi.org/10.4323/rjlm.2011.135

6th-8th Grade Program

http://www.ascd.org/publications/classroom-leadership/sept1998/A-Democratic-Approach-to-Classroom-Management.aspx

http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1334

http://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/effects-complex-trauma-on-youth-briefing

https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/report_1973/ShortReport-1973.html

http://www.codmanacademy.org/PDF/Trauma-Informed-in-Schools-Classrooms-FINAL-December2014-2

https://nche.ed.gov/downloads/resilience

http://www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources/school-safety-and-crisis/trauma

https://www.nctsn.org/resources/child-trauma-toolkit-educators

http://reach.search-institute.org/why-reach/

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/fcre.2013.51.issue-3

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0031721717696476

https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/mental-health/index.html

https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/mental-health/access-adolescent-mental-health-care/index.html

Retrieved from https://store.samhsa.gov/system/files/sma14-
4884

Urban Education Institute. (2017). Practicing trauma-responsive teach-
ing. The University of Chicago. Retrieved from https://uei.uchi
cago.edu/sites/default/files/documents/UEI%202017%20New
%20Knowledge%20-%20Practicing%20Trauma-Responsive%
20Teaching

Walkley, M., & Cox, T. L. (2013). Building trauma-informed schools
and communities. Children & Schools, 35(2), 123–126.
doi:10.1093/cs/cdt007

Wolpaw, J. W., & Ford, J. D. (2004). Assessing exposure to psychological trauma
andpost-traumatic stress in the juvenile justice population.NationalChild and
Traumatic Stress Network. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/
sites/default/files/resources//child_trauma_toolkit_educators

Heidi B. Von Dohlen, Ed.D., is an assistant professor in Educational Leadership in the Department of Human Services, College of Education and
Allied Professions at Western Carolina University. Email: hbvondohlen@wcu.edu

Holly H. Pinter, Ph.D., is an associate professor in Middle Grades Education in the School of Teaching and Learning at Western Carolina University.
Email: hhpinter@wcu.edu

Kim K. Winter, Ph.D., is a professor in Middle Grades Education and Dean of The College of Education and Allied Professions at Western Carolina
University. Email: kkruebel@wcu.edu

Sandy Ward is the principal at W.R. Odell Elementary School in Cabarrus County, NC and a doctoral student in Educational Leadership at Western
Carolina University. Email: sandy.ward@cabarrus.k12.nc.us

Chip Cody is the principal at The Catamount School in Sylva, NC. Email: ccody@wcu.edu

www.amle.org 15

https://store.samhsa.gov/system/files/sma14-4884

https://uei.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/documents/UEI%202017%20New%20Knowledge%20-%20Practicing%20Trauma-Responsive%20Teaching

http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdt007

https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources//child_trauma_toolkit_educators

Copyright of Middle School Journal is the property of Routledge and its content may not be
copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s
express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.

Review of literature

School background & connection to whole school, whole community, whole child

School/student demographics

Climate/school culture

Significant barriers

Student cases

Damien

Julie

Nate

Implementation of trauma-informed practices

The community of care

The evaluation committee

Democratic classrooms

Tribe (homeroom) morning meetings

Village (whole school) meetings

Project-based learning

Intervention and enrichment

Areas for future research

Conclusion

References

Notes on contributors

Issues in Educational Research, 26(1), 2016 82

Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children
in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

Teresa Mwoma
Kenyatta University, Kenya
Jace Pillay
University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Educational status is an important indicator of children’s wellbeing and future life
opportunities. It can predict growth potential and economic viability of a state. While
this is an ideal situation for all children, the case may be different for orphans and
vulnerable children (OVC) due to the challenges they go through on a daily basis. This
article aims to advance a debate on the findings of our study on the educational support
provided for OVC through a critical engagement on the challenges experienced and the
intervention measures to be taken in South African public primary schools context. The
study involved one hundred and seven participants comprising sixty five OVC and forty
two teachers. Questionnaires with structured and unstructured questions were utilised to
collect descriptive and qualitative data. Findings suggest that, although the South African
Government has put mechanisms in place to support OVC attain basic education,
numerous challenges were found to be hindering some OVC from attaining quality
education. Based on the findings, several intervention measures have been suggested.

Introduction

According to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals evaluation report 2013
“Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rate of children leaving school early in the world with
slightly more than two out of five children who started primary school in 2010 who will
not make it into the last grade” (UN, 2013, p.16). While it is not clear from the report why
many children would leave school early, poverty and the effects of HIV/AIDS have been
known to play a big role in children leaving school early especially in Sub-Saharan Africa.
This is a worrying trend that calls for attention from all stakeholders in education to
ensure that children at risk of dropping out of school are supported to complete their
primary schooling.

UNICEF (2009) maintains that addressing the educational rights and needs of OVC in
Sub-Saharan Africa presents new opportunities and challenges that need attention. With
the abolition of school fees in public primary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa, many
children are enrolled in schools. However, the number of OVC has increased presenting
new challenges in handling the large numbers and in addressing their educational rights
and needs (UNICEF, 2009). Due to HIV/AIDS the traditional structure of households is
changing in affected communities, leaving vulnerable children to adapt to non-traditional
families and poverty (Ebersohn & Eloff, 2002). Ebersohn and Eloff note that when
parents die, some orphans are left under the care of aged grandparents or under older
siblings to care for them. This arrangement however may negatively influence the
schooling status of affected children.

Mwoma & Pillay 83

Fleming (2015) pointed out that OVC in countries with many cases of HIV/AIDS
experienced discrimination in accessing education and healthcare as orphanhood is
associated with HIV/AIDS. Fleming further argued that maternal and double orphans are
more discriminated against in accessing education than paternal orphans (Fleming, 2015;
Case et al, 2004). Such orphans experience financial constraints which further
disadvantage them as they cannot afford the cost of education related materials.
Vulnerable children from child headed households are burdened with domestic and
economic responsibilities, which in turn affect their participation in education in relation
to attending and succeeding in school (Fleming, 2015).

As the number of OVC grows, communities become less and less capable of addressing
all their basic needs, including their ability to go to school (UNICEF, 2009). Lack of
support in education by parents/guardians will have a direct influence on how OVC
perform in education (Mwoma & Pillay, 2015). Interventions to overcome educational
challenges are therefore critical as education gives a child hope for life and work and is a
strong protector against HIV to which these children may be susceptible.

South Africa being a signatory to the Dakar Framework for Action of 2000, and to a
number of other international agreements, is committed to combating poverty and
uplifting people through the provision of basic education (Republic of South Africa,
2003). The government has made basic education compulsory for all children of school
going age. It is to be of good quality and in which financial capacity is not a barrier to
access to any child (Republic of South Africa, 2003).

However, with the increase in HIV/AIDS epidemic across Southern Africa, countries are
struggling to find effective means of addressing the negative impact of HIV at individual,
family and community levels. The most complicated challenge is how to support the
growing number of OVC made vulnerable by the direct and indirect effects of
HIV/AIDS on their households (Open Society Foundation Education Support Program
(OSFESP), and Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, (OSISA), 2012). In view of
the challenges mentioned above, the current study sought to establish the educational
support provided for OVC in public primary schools.

Orphans and vulnerable children (OVC)

A joint report by the United Nations Program on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS), United
Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) and United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) (2004) maintain that millions of children can be described as
vulnerable due to the effects of illness, poverty, conflict, disease and accidents. In the
recent past however, the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic has been the significant
cause of the increase in OVC.

According to USAID & Catholic Relief Services (CRS) (2008), orphans are defined as
children aged under 18 years who have lost either one or both parents while vulnerable
children are defined as children whose safety, well-being or development is at significant

84 Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

risk. Economic and reduced parental care and protection may lead to OVC losing out on
education about how to avoid HIV infection and may be more susceptible to abuse and
exploitation than others (USAID &CRS, 2008). This article highlights findings on the
educational support for OVC in public primary schools with a special focus on the
challenges and intervention measures.

Educational support

Education as recognised in the convention on the rights of the child is a basic human
right for all children (Committee on the Rights of the Child, 1989). A child who has access
to quality primary schooling has a better chance in life. A child who knows how to read
and write and do basic arithmetic has a solid foundation for continued learning
throughout life (USAID & CRS, 2008). USAID and CRS maintain that school attendance
helps children affected by trauma to regain a sense of normalcy and to recover from the
psychosocial impact of their experiences and disruptive lives. They further observe that
education benefits individuals and the whole nation as a major instrument for social and
economic development (USAID & CRS, 2008).

Hallfors et al (2011) pointed out that supporting adolescent girls to stay in school
increases their chances of remaining in school, hence reducing chances of contracting
HIV through early marriage. This intervention further reduces chances of girls dropping
out of school. They maintain that staying in school increases girls’ bonding with school
and teachers which in turn makes girls feel accepted and cared for by their teachers. This
motivates girls to work harder to brighten their future life (Hallfors et al, 2011).

Kelly (2002) maintained that formal school education is a powerful tool for transforming
poverty in an environment where HIV/AIDS are rampart. He further argued that growth
in education may positively influence growth out of poverty. All learners deserve quality
education regardless of their status that will equip them with knowledge, skills and
competencies to increase personal earnings and contribute to economic productivity
(Baxen, Nsubuga & Botha, 2014; Robeyns, 2006).

Schools not only benefit the child but can serve as important resource centres to meet the
broader needs of the community (PEPFAR, 2006). Schools can provide children with a
safe structured environment, the emotional support and supervision of adults and the
opportunity to learn how to interact with other children and develop social networks.
“Education is likely to lead to employability and can foster a child developing a sense of
competence” (PEPFAR, 2006, p. 9). However, Wood and Goba (2011) in their study
noted that teachers perceived themselves as not adequately prepared to deal with issues
affecting OVC. This was evident when the teachers tried to support OVC but
encountered difficulties in transferring knowledge acquired during training to action. The
teachers acknowledged that what they learned in the training helped them improve their
attitudes in working with OVC.

Mwoma & Pillay 85

USAID and CRS (2008) point out that basic education in primary and secondary levels
contribute to the reduction of poverty. It increases labour productivity, improves health
and enables people to participate fully in the economy and the development of their
societies. They further argue that children and society who lack access to quality education
are disadvantaged in terms of income, health and opportunity (USAID & CRS, 2008).
Behavioural problems among OVC coupled with lack of well-established counseling
structures (Mwoma & Pillay, 2015) may negatively influence children’s performance in
education. Thus OVC need educational interventions as they are at risk of becoming
infected with HIV due to economic hardships, reduced parental care and protection and
increased susceptibility to abuse, and exploitation. These factors contribute to the barriers
OVC face when pursuing education (USAID & CRS, 2008).

Theoretical framework

This article is anchored on the theoretical underpinnings of Bronfenbrenner’s bio-
ecological systems theory which holds that development reflects the influence of several
environmental systems. Bronfenbrenner conceptualised the child’s environment as having
different interconnected layers nested together with agents that influence the child’s
development with varying degrees of directness (McGuckin & Minton, 2014). Thus,
parents, guardians, caregivers and the family have a direct influence on the child‘s
socialisation within the microsystem. At this level, the child interacts with his/her family
face to face. The school, peers and neighbourhood form the mesosystem whose
interaction with the child socialises him/her to influence his/her development.
Mesosystem in this case is about the connections and interrelationships between the home
and school. Parental/guardian support for OVC in this case will have a direct relationship
on how the child performs in school and at home.

Bronfenbrenner (1979) maintained that the family influences all aspects of a child’s
development including language, nutrition, security, health and beliefs. Thus, a child who
attends school is a product of his/her family. The relationships children develop in school
become critical to their positive development due to the amount of time they spend in
school. It is in the school that children develop relationships with adults outside their
family for the first time. These connections help children develop cognitively and
emotionally (Addison, 1992). OVC however, may not have such an advantage due to the
challenges they go through both at home and in school that are likely to impact negatively
in their education. Thus requiring education interventions that would enable them
overcome these challenges.

Research methodology

A mixed method approach involving descriptive and qualitative designs were utilised in
this study (Creswell, 2012, Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). Self-report questionnaires for
learners and educators were designed to capture both descriptive and qualitative data
concurrently through structured and unstructured questions.

86 Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

The study was carried out in public primary schools in Soweto. Learners in grade seven
were targeted for the study as they were perceived to be able to read and answer questions
in English. The study targeted public primary schools since OVC cannot afford the cost in
private schools. One hundred and seven participants from seven public primary schools
participated in the study, involving forty two teachers and sixty five OVC (43 boys and 22
girls). The OVC in grade seven who participated in the study were aged between ten and
sixteen years with majority aged twelve (33.8%) and thirteen (36.9%).

Questionnaires for educators and learners were utilised to seek information on educational
support provided for OVC, with a focus on the challenges experienced by teachers in
supporting these children. The questionnaires also sought information on the possible
interventions that could be utilised to mitigate the challenges. The questionnaires were
piloted in March 2015 in one public primary school in Soweto where nine learners and six
teachers filled the learner and teacher questionnaires respectively. The questionnaires were
validated using “respondent validation” (Silverman, 2001, p. 235) where participants in the
pilot were taken through their responses in the questionnaire to establish whether the
questions and responses matched their own experiences. Suggestions given by participants
were utilised to improve the questionnaire used to collect data for this study. Actual data
collection was conducted in May and June 2014.

A triangulation of data sources (descriptive and qualitative data from structured and
unstructured questions) and respondents (learners and teachers) were utilised to enhance
reliability of the findings (Creswell, 2012; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). To enhance
trustworthiness of qualitative data actual words of the participants have been used to
report the findings of the study.

Data from structured questions were captured into the statistical package for social
sciences (SPSS) which were processed and presented in descriptive statistics involving
frequencies and percentages on tables ready for analysis. Qualitative data from
unstructured questions, were typed into text, coded and categorised into themes ready for
analysis. Qualitative data were analysed alongside descriptive data to provide an overview
of the educational support, challenges and possible interventions to mitigate the identified
challenges.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct the study was acquired from the Ethics Committee of the
Faculty of Education at the university where the authors were employed. Clearance to
conduct the study in public primary schools was granted by the Gauteng Department of
Education. Further clearance to access public primary schools in Soweto was granted by
the District Director, Johannesburg Central District. Permission to conduct the study in
schools was granted by the principals of schools. Written consent to participate in the
study was sought from parents/guardians for learners and from teachers who participated
in the study. To enhance confidentiality, no names of participants or schools are
mentioned in this article. Letters of the alphabet have been used to identify the schools

Mwoma & Pillay 87

that participated while participants have been assigned codes to identify learners and
teachers and the schools they came from. For instance learners are given the code ‘L’
while teachers are given the code ‘T’. Each code is given a number to show whether the
participant was number 1, 2 or 3 from a given school, such as school ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’.
Therefore in establishing who said what the codes will be indicated as follows: L1SA
denoting learner 1 from school A, T6SC denoting teacher 6 from school C.

Results and discussions of the findings

The results of this study are presented and discussed under three themes that emerged
from data analysis, namely: provision of educational support for OVC, challenges
experienced by teachers in providing educational support for OVC and possible
intervention measures to mitigate the challenges.

Provision of educational support for OVC

National economic development can be enhanced by investing in quality education where
there are enough teachers and educational learning tools for children (Baxen, Nsubuga &
Botha 2014; Robeyns, 200; Tikly, 2011). This calls for all learners to acquire quality
education regardless of their status. Our study revealed that the government through the
implementation of a no fee policy in schools, enabled OVC to access their basic
education. This was confirmed by 57 (88%) learners indicating that the government paid
their fees and 48 (74%) learners indicating that this support enabled many of them to
access education. Sixty four (98.5%) learners and 36 (85%) teachers revealed that the
schools provided books and stationery for all children while 46 (71%) learners revealed
that different organisations provided school uniforms for them.

Findings further revealed that schools through the government soup kitchens provided
meals to OVC where 63 (96%) learners and 38 (90.5%) teachers confirmed this fact. Fifty
eight (89.2%) learners and 30 (71.4%) teachers indicated that teachers encouraged learners
who were not performing well to work hard in order to improve in their academic
performance. This support is geared towards ensuring that all children regardless of their
status are able to access basic education.

It is observable from the above findings that the department of education, the schools and
other stakeholders have done their best to ensure that OVC in public primary schools are
supported to acquire their basic education. However, looking at the percentages, one can
tell that there is a small percentage of OVC who are not getting the kind of support
reported. Therefore it is important to explore the challenges teachers experience in
meeting the educational needs for OVC.

Challenges in providing educational support for OVC

The challenges discussed in this section relates to: teachers’ support for OVC, provision
of feeding program, and support from guardians/parents.

88 Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

Teacher’s support for OVC

Schools and other educational service providers have always been aware of children or
adolescents in their midst struggling to stay in school due to difficult or even catastrophic
life circumstances (OSFESP & OSISA, 2012). The difficulties learners experience may be
worsened if teachers are not able to identify such learners in good time for adequate
intervention. Findings from our study indicated that the challenges deterring teachers
from supporting OVC include lack of sufficient time for individual attention to OVC. As
one teacher said, “we have no sufficient time to support individual children” (T2SA).
Though the teacher did not give a specific reason why they do not have sufficient time, it
could be possible that having a syllabus to cover within a given period coupled with
having a large number of learners who need individual attention can be contributing
factors for lacking sufficient time for individual attention. Wood and Goba (2011) noted
that teachers trained in life orientation felt a sense of being marginalised by their
colleagues who left OVC for them to deal with. On the other hand OVC experienced
stigma which was challenging for life orientation teachers who could not prevent it from
happening. The teachers also revealed that they would work for long hours so as to attend
to the needs of OVC as well as attend to their lessons and assessment (Wood & Goba,
2011).

Reading and writing were other challenges that OVC struggled with. Twenty six (40%)
learners reported that they were not able to write like other children while 14 (23%)
indicated they were not able to read like others. This was confirmed by a teacher who
revealed that “some OVC struggle in reading and writing” (T3SC). This challenge could
be connected to lack of sufficient time for teachers to attend to learners individually,
leaving OVC struggling on their own. Without the ability to read and write the child’s
learning process may be affected negatively as reading and writing are core activities in the
learning process of all subjects studied in school.

Lack of concentration among OVC, submitting school work late and not doing their
school/homework were other challenges cited as likely to have negative influence on
OVC’s education. Teachers from different schools mentioned “OVC lack concentration
in school work” (T3SC), and “OVC submit their school work late” (T3SC). The
experiences OVC go through at home and in school may influence how they concentrate
and do their school work. Mwoma & Pillay (2015) noted that parents/guardians were not
supportive to OVC in relation to homework. Pillay (2011) revealed that learners from
child headed households lacked support and they mostly had negative experiences in their
homes characterised by abject poverty. As a result of their poverty stricken conditions,
they were often sad, depressed and angry, which could negatively affect their
concentration and academic performance.

Low self-esteem among OVC was found to be a contributing factor to poor performance
in education as T6SA said “self-esteem is … [related to] low morale and their
performances are disturbed”. High numbers of OVC were also reported to be a challenge
for teachers to meet their educational needs, as another teacher stated, “the number of
OVC is increasing and somehow I cannot afford to meet their educational needs” (T3SE).

Mwoma & Pillay 89

This was worsened by guardians/parents of OVC not cooperating with teachers whenever
invited to school on education matters. One teacher from school E reported this by
saying: “guardians do not honour their school invitations” (T2SE).

Absenteeism and lateness to school were other challenges likely to negatively influence
OVC’s academic performance. Teachers from different schools reported that: “they don’t
come to school regularly” (T1SE); “there is poor school attendance, and they come late”
(T6SB). Although our study did not focus on the reasons why OVC absent themselves
from school, reasons given by Mishra and Bignami-Van Assche (2008) and those by
Eberson and Eloff may apply to our case. Mishra and Bignami-Van Assche (2008)
revealed that various reasons could make OVC be at greater risk of absenteeism and
dropping out of school. The reasons according to them would include inability to pay
fees, need to help with household labour or having to stay at home to care for sick parents
or younger children. Ebersohn and Eloff (2002) also observed that the marked decline in
school attendance in the South African education landscape is due to the effects of
HIV/AIDS, sickness, poverty and stigma, child labour or caring for sick relatives. The
reasons given could attempt to explain why OVC in our study could not attend school
regularly which is likely to impact negatively in their performance in education.

School feeding program

Food and nutrition are important components for OVC’s support (PEPFAR, 2006).
USAID and CRS (2008) pointed out that school feeding programs can enable children in
general and OVC in particular to access education by addressing hunger and the need to
work to survive. Findings from our study revealed that although schools had feeding
programs, some OVC lacked meals in their homes compelling them to come to school
without having breakfast. One teacher observed “some OVC have no food at home, they
come to school hungry” (T3SB), and another said “some OVC have no breakfast when
they come to school” (T7SB). Eight (12%) learners also confirmed this fact that OVC did
not have meals at home. Due to lack of food at home, some OVC would even come to
school when they were sick to have one meal a day provided in school. While teachers saw
the feeding program as useful, learners had a different view where they reported that they
are usually not served enough food at school. Learners from school A, had this to say:
“my problem is having meals in school” (L3SA), “they don’t give us much food in
school” (L7SA).

Some schools are trying to provide food parcels for OVC to take home, but they
experience further challenges in providing enough for family members. For others some
OVC lacked lunch boxes to carry the food home. One teacher said “we have a shortage of
resources as the school has insufficient means to meet them half way because they should
take food parcels home” (T3SG), and another remarked “OVC often do not have a lunch
box to carry food home” (T5SA).

90 Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

Support from guardians/parents

Ebersohn and Eloff, (2002) observed that due to the death of parents and close relatives
as a result of HIV/AIDS, families have been disrupted causing an increase of destitute
and abandoned children in South Africa. They further argue that when parents die, some
orphans are left under the care of aged grandparents or under older siblings to care for
them. This was supported by findings from our study where OVC were reported to be
relocating from relative to relative while others could not do their homework indicating
that they lacked supervision and support in their home. Teachers from different schools
reported this by saying: “other learners change their location often moving from relative
to relative” (T2SE), and “they don’t have a support from the people they are staying with,
especially with homework” (T1SC).

Cleanliness among OVC was another challenge indicating that OVC are not supervised at
home to ensure personal hygiene. Teachers reported this by saying: “they are often very
dirty even on Mondays suggesting that they have no one to take care of them over the
weekend” (T5SA), “some of the OVC come to school with dirty clothing” (T4SB). Sund
(2006) observed that parents/guardians have the greatest responsibility to protect their
children by supervising them. Being the first teachers and protectors of their children,
parents have a primary responsibility of ensuring that children have a conducive social
environment at home.

Bronfenbrenner (1979) identified the home as the microsystem where children are
socialised to learn how to interact with other social agents in society. Supervision of
children by parents/guardians ensures that children become responsible and are not
rendered vulnerable to the law by becoming violent to other children or by destroying
property (Sund, 2006). Supervision at home could include ensuring that children are
encouraged to do home/schoolwork, observe personal hygiene, and that
parents/guardians work hand in hand with teachers to ensure that OVC attend school
regularly as these were major negative challenges reported to be influencing the education
for OVC.

Intervention strategies in providing educational support for OVC

The environment in which the child lives plays a critical role in ensuring that the child’s
basic needs are met. Bronfenbrenner (1979) through his ecological systems theory argued
that the ecological systems surrounding the child directly or indirectly influence his/her
development. The system represents the family, school, the government and the culture
and each of these play a role directly or indirectly in the child’s education. Neal and Neal
(2013) maintained that these systems are networked where each system is defined in terms
of the social relationships surrounding the child and the different levels relating to one
another in an overlapping but non-nested way. They further argued that the family is a
microsystem where the child has direct experiences and interactions with family members
face to face. Mesosystem according to them, could involve the interaction between the
parents and teachers about the child’s behaviour both at home and in school in relation to
his/her education (Neal & Neal, 2013). For instance, a child may not be involved in

Mwoma & Pillay 91

making the education policies but these policies will influence the child’s school
experiences. Cultural influences or ideologies may also influence the child’s educational
experiences. For instance, societies that emphasise the importance of teachers being
accountable on the standards of education in the community school, will have
implications on how children will perform in their education (Neal & Neal, 2013).
Therefore, in coming up with intervention strategies, the family, the school and the
government will play a key role in ensuring that OVC are supported to acquire quality
basic education.

Supporting OVC with school work

Mwoma & Pillay (2015) maintained that in supporting OVC, life orientation skills are
critical for OVC especially those taking care of their ailing parents/guardians. However
this support was missing as 54% of the teachers and 31% of the OVC indicated that they
are not taught how to care for sick persons at home, implying the children struggle on
their own. This may have indirect influence on their participation in education as they may
not attend school regularly or do homework.

Among the strategies identified that could be used to improve support for OVC with
school work at the meso and exosystem levels is the need for government to employ more
teachers to support OVC after school hours. One teacher stated “the Department of
Education should employ extra teachers to help after school hours with school work so
that they must not be left behind” (T3SC). Another said “teachers can remain with them
and help them with their homework” (T1SE)

Home visits and having information for OVC were reported to be further strategies that
involve the micro and mesosystem levels that could be used to establish the challenges
OVC go through while at home and how best they can be helped. In supporting this
strategy, teachers said “the teachers should visit homes to verify and have enough
information in order to support OVC accordingly” (T3SG), and “as a registered teacher, I
should know the status of every learner in my class as this will make it easier to know who
needs help where” (T2SD).

Participants also suggested that there should be a social worker in each school, to whom
OVC could be referred for further support. One teacher from school C supported this
strategy by saying: “If they (government) could put one social worker in school so that
when children experience difficulties, they can be referred to them” (T2SC). Learners
from different schools also revealed that they needed extra time, extra lessons and
devoted teachers to support them. This was captured in the following words: “We should
be given extra time and extra lessons” (L2SC), “We can be helped by going to school
weekend and having more teachers in the school and more classrooms” (L8SA). A learner
from school G, was of the opinion that learners who cannot read and write should be
given extra practice: “I think the reading problem can be solved by helping the children
who can’t read by influencing them to practice harder. The ones who can’t write very well
by starting to teach them spelling” (L2SG).

92 Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

Findings further indicated that for OVC to be supported effectively there is need for a
collective responsibility from teachers, parents/guardians, and government to ensure that
OVC are supported in their educational needs. Each of these stakeholders should play
their roles effectively to support OVC both at home and in school in line with
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) findings that the home, the school, the government and the
community at large have a critical role in a child’s development and learning.

Provision of feeding programs

Feeding children is very important in ensuring that they have energy to play and learn and
have good health. Findings from our study indicated that some children came to school
without breakfast, indicating that they could be starving at home. To mitigate this,
interviewees suggested that there is a need to provide food parcels for OVC to take home.
Teachers from different schools supported this strategy by saying: “these learners need
support in totality … they need to be given food parcels on a daily basis to take home”
(T4SD), and “we (the school/government) must supply these learners with more food”
(T5SA). One learner from school E supported this by saying: “if I am thinking of solving
the problem at home we should be given some food and soup to eat” (L2SE). This
finding is consistent with Santa-Ana et al’s (2011) findings revealing that various
intervention strategies to improve children’s nutrition may include the provision of
vouchers to purchase food, or even the provision of cooked meals.

USAID and CRS (2008) maintain that take home rations have been shown to promote
participation, progression and retention of OVC in education. They further argue that,
children who are not hungry are better able to concentrate in class. Therefore, providing
food parcels for OVC is critical in ensuring that they do not go to school hungry.

Support for OVC from guardians/parents

McGuckin and Minton (2014) in supporting the ecological systems theory maintain that
the environment in which a child grows up, plays a critical role in shaping the relationship
between the child and his/her development. The family, school and neighbourhood has
the most and earliest influence on the child’s development (Krishnan, 2010). The
relationship at this level could be bi-directional. Bronfenbrenner (1979) wrote that the
child’s family influence the behaviour of the child and vice versa. Thus providing the
educational needs for OVC by family members and the school community is important in
enhancing the educational performance of OVC. In addition, the family being the optimal
environment for a child to develop, assistance programs should be designed to enable
OVC to remain in a loving family situation to maintain stability, care, predictability and
protection.

Findings from our study revealed that, in order for OVC to get adequate support from
guardians/parents there is a need for workshops to sensitise them to the need to fully
support OVC with school/homework and to supervise their personal hygiene at home.
Two teachers added “guardians must be taken for a workshop on taking care of the

Mwoma & Pillay 93

orphans since they are under their care” (T2SG), and “the department of education must
support workshops for guardians of these poor learners” (T1SC).

PEPFAR (2006) maintained that supporting families helps build a protective environment
for vulnerable children. Krishnan (2010) also pointed out that what happens in a
microsystem such as home where a child lives, could influence what happens in the school
and vice versa. It is imperative therefore, that capacity building for guardians/parents on
the importance of supporting children under their care while at home and in school is an
option that cannot be overlooked.

Regular home visits by social workers was another strategy deemed to be supportive
especially for social workers to identify the various needs of OVC alongside the needs of
parents/guardians with a view of identifying the appropriate ways of meeting those needs.
Teachers stated “social workers should take responsibility by checking these OVC in their
homes and support them” (T2SB), and “social workers must make follow-up visits to find
out why these children do not attend school regularly” (T2SE).

Identifying needy guardians/parents for OVC and providing them with social grants was
another strategy cited to ensure that they are able to purchase necessities for these
children to promote their personal hygiene. Two participants supported this strategy by
saying “social workers should take responsibility by checking OVC’s homes to support
their guardians access social grants” (T2SB), and “if I am thinking of solving the problem
at home I should be given some bathing or even washing soap” (L2SE). Although it was
not clear on who should provide this kind of support, the government through social
grants would be in a better position to provide for this need.

Conclusions

We would argue that although the government has supported OVC through a no fee
policy, provision of learning materials and feeding programs, more needs to be done such
as engaging teachers from the community to cope with the high numbers of OVC
reported in public schools. This will give teachers time for individual attention and to
coach OVC after school hours to avoid challenges in reading and writing.

Lack of food at home may have negative impact on the child’s health since a hungry child
may not have energy to play and to actively participate in his/her learning. Therefore
introducing feeding programs at home will ensure continuity of OVC having enough food
at home and in school to promote their health and learning.

Absenteeism from school and lateness may have negative impact on OVC’s academic
performance. Research confirms that orphans from different countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa including South Africa, experience lower school attendance than non-orphans
(Bhargava, 2005, Case & Ardington, 2006, Operario et al., 2008). This requires
government through schools to sensitise parents/guardians on the importance of sending
OVC to school regularly and supervising them in their homework.

94 Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

Acknowledgement

This work is based on research supported by the South African Research Chairs Initiative
of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation of
South Africa. South African Research Chair: Education and Care in Childhood, Faculty of
Education: University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Grant no 87300.

References

Addison, J. T. (1992). Urie Bronfenbrenner. Human Ecology, 20(2), 16-20.
Africa Leadership Initiative (2007). Orphans and vulnerable children in South Africa. Problems,

perception, players… and possibilities for change. http://reospartners.com/wp-
content/uploads/old/OVC%20Phase%20One%20Report

Baxen, J., Nsubuga, Y. & Botha, L. J. (2014). A capabilities perspective on education
quality: Implications for foundation phase teacher education program design.
Perspectives in Education, 32(4), 93-105. http://www.perspectives-in-
education.com/ViewPublication.aspx?PublicationID=26

Bell, C., Devarajan, S. & Gersbach, H. (2006). The long-run economic costs of AIDS: A
model with an application to South Africa. World Bank Economic Review, 20(1), 55-89.
http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1093/wber/lhj006?journalCode=wber

Bhargava, A. (2005). AIDS epidemic and psychological well-being and school
participation of Ethiopian orphans. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 10(3), 263-275.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13548500412331334181

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Case, A. & Ardington, C. (2006). The impact of parental death on school outcomes:
Longitudinal evidence from South Africa. Demography, 43(3), 401-420.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/dem.2006.0022

Case, A. Paxson, C. & Ableidinge, J. (2004). Orphans in Africa: Parental death, poverty,
and school enrollment. Demography, 41(3), 483-508.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/dem.2004.0019

Committee on the rights of the child (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. Office of the
United Nations High Commission on Human Rights.
http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches
(3rd ed.). London: SAGE Publications.

Ebersohn, L. & Eloff, I. (2002). The black, white and grey of rainbow children coping
with HIV/AIDS. Perspectives in Education, 20(2), 77-86.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001376/137638e [pp.177-196]

Edmonds, E. V. (2006). Child labour and schooling responses to anticipated income in
South Africa. Journal of Development Economics, 81(2), 386-414.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.05.001

Mwoma & Pillay 95

Fleming, K. E. (2015). Improving access to education for orphans or vulnerable children affected by
HIV/AIDS. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2015,
Education for All 2000-2015: achievements and challenges. UNESCO.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002324/232423e

Hallfors, D., Cho, H., Rusakaniko, S., Iritani, B., Mapfuno, J. & Helpern, C. (2011).
Supporting adolescent orphan girls to stay in school as HIV risk prevention: Evidence
from a randomized controlled trial in Zimbabwe. American Journal of Public Health,
101(6), 1082-1088. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.300042

Kelly, M. J. (2002). Preventing HIV transmission through education. Perspectives in
Education, 20(2), 1-12.
http://hivhealthclearinghouse.unesco.org/sites/default/files/resources/
KellyPerspectives%20in%20Education%20Article

Krishnan, V. (2010). Early childhood development: A conceptual model. Paper presented
at the Early Childhood Annual Conference ‘Valuing Care’, Christchurch Convention
Convention Centre, New Zealand, 7-9 May 2010.

McGuckin, C. & Minton, S. J. (2014). From theory to practice: Two ecosystemic
approaches and their applications to understanding school bullying. Australian Journal of
Guidance and Counselling, 24(1), 36-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.10

Mishra, V. & Bignami-Van Assche, S. (2008). Orphans and vulnerable children in high HIV-
prevalence countries in sub-Saharan Africa. DHS Analytical Studies 15, USAID.
http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/as15/as15

Monasch, R. & Boerma, J. T. (2004). Orphanhood and childcare patterns in sub-Saharan
Africa: An analysis of national surveys from 40 countries. AIDS, 18, S55-S65.
http://journals.lww.com/aidsonline/Fulltext/2004/06002/Orphanhood_and_childcar
e_patterns_in_sub_Saharan.7.aspx

Mwoma, T. & Pillay, J. (2015). Psychosocial support for orphans and vulnerable children
in public primary schools: Challenges and intervention strategies. South African Journal of
Education, 35(3), 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v35n3a1092

Neal, J. W & Neal, Z. P. (2013). Nested or networked? Future directions for ecological
systems theory. Social Development, 22(4), 722-737.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sode.12018

Open Society Foundation Education Support Programme & Open Society Initiative for
Southern Africa (2012). The role of the education sector in providing care and support for orphans
and vulnerable children in Lesotho and Swaziland. OSF ESP & OSISA.
https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/lesotho-and-swaziland-
orphans-20130327

Operario, D., Cluver, L., Rees, H., MacPhail, M. & Pettifor, A. (2008). Orphanhood and
completion of compulsory school education among young people in South Africa:
Findings from a national representative survey. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(1),
173-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00555.x

PEPFAR (The President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief) (2006). Orphans and other
vulnerable children programming guidance. PEPFAR office of the U.S. Global AIDS
Coordinator July 2006. http://www.pepfar.gov/reports/guidance/78161.htm

Pillay, J. (2011). Experiences of learners from child-headed households in a vulnerable
school that makes a difference: Lessons for school psychologists. School Psychology
International, 33(1), 3-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034311409994

96 Educational support for orphans and vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions

Republic of South Africa (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa No. 108 of 1996.
Pretoria: Government Printers.
http://www.thehda.co.za/uploads/files/unpan005172

Republic of South Africa (2003). Plan of action: Improving access to free and quality basic education
for all. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.
http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/educ_access_1

Republic of South Africa (2011). Action plan to 2014: Towards the realization of schooling 2025.
Full version. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.

Republic of South Africa (2013). Education for All (EFA) 2013 country progress report: South
Africa. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.
http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=o3v%2B9o3MwWY%3D&ta
bid=358&mid=1261

Robeyns, I. (2006). Three models of education: Rights, capabilities and human capital.
Theory and Research in Education, 4(1), 69-84.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1477878506060683

Santa-Ana-Tellez, Y., DeMaria, L.M. & Galarraga, O. (2011). Costs of interventions for
AIDS orphans and vulnerable children: Systematic review. Tropical Medicine and
International Health, 16(11), 1417-1426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
3156.2011.02856.x

Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text and interaction.
London: SAGE Publications.

Sund, L. (2006). The rights of the child as legally protected interests. The International
Journal of Children’s Rights, 14(4), 327-337.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181806779050159

Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and quantitative
approaches. London: SAGE. https://au.sagepub.com/en-gb/oce/mixed-
methodology/book6245

Tikly, L. & Barret, A. M. (2011). Social justice, capabilities and the quality of education in
low income communities. International Journal of Educational Development, 31(1), 3-14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2010.06.001

Tikly, L. (2011). Towards a framework for researching the quality of education in low-
income countries. Comparative Education, 47(1), 1-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2011.541671

UNAIDS, UNICEF & USAID (2004). Children on the Brink 2004: A joint report of new orphan
estimates and a framework for action.
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_22212.html

United Nations (2013). The millennium development goals report 2013.
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/report-2013/mdg-report-2013-english

UNICEF (2009). Promoting quality education for orphans and vulnerable children: A source book of
programme experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa. UNICEF.

United States Agency of International Development & Catholic Relief Services (2008).
Education programming for orphans and vulnerable children affected by or vulnerable
to HIV: Moving beyond school fees and uniforms. Final report December, 2008.
USAID & CRS. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadp105

Mwoma & Pillay 97

Wood, L. & Goba, L. (2011). Care and support of orphaned and vulnerable children at
school: Helping teachers to respond. South African Journal of Education, 31(2), 275-290.
http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S0256-
01002011000200010&script=sci_arttext

Dr Teresa Mwoma is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Early Childhood Studies,
School of Education, Kenyatta University, Kenya. She was previously a Post-Doctoral
Research Fellow in Education and Care in Childhood at the University of Johannesburg,
South Africa.
Email: tbitengo@yahoo.com
Web: http://www.ku.ac.ke/schools/education/faculty-profiles/faculty-profiles/89-
faculty/33-dr-teresa-bitengo-mwoma

Professor Jace Pillay is an educational psychologist and holds the South African
Research Chair: Education and Care in Childhood, in the Faculty of Education, Soweto
Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Email: jacep@uj.ac.za
Web: http://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/facultyofeducation/SarchiAtUJ/Pages/Prof-Jace-
Pillay.aspx

Please cite as: Mwoma, T. & Pillay, J. (2016). Educational support for orphans and
vulnerable children in primary schools: Challenges and interventions Issues in Educational
Research, 26(1), 82-97. http://www.iier.org.au/iier26/mwoma

Copyright of Issues in Educational Research is the property of Australia’s Institutes for
Educational Research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted
to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may
print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Moving beyond schedules, testing and other
duties as deemed necessary by the principal:
The school counselor’s role in trauma informed
practices

Penny B. Howell, Shelley Thomas, Damien Sweeney, & Judi Vanderhaar

Abstract

: Researchers and practitioners in fields such as psy-
chology and social work increasingly recognize the significant
need for schools, in general, to be sites for delivery of trauma-
informed practices. Given the extent and nature of trauma expo-
sure in our schools, we believe it is critical that the primary
individual supporting trauma-informed practices is physically
present in the school daily, integrated within school routines, and
has ongoing relationships with students, teachers, and staff. In this
article we will reexamine the role of the School Counselor (SC)
through the lens of This We Believe: The Keys to Educating Young
Adolescents and illuminate the many reasons the SC’s voice and
perspective is essential to school-wide enactment of trauma-
informed practices. We believe SCs need a voice at the table
regarding school-wide decisions and advocate that they lead the
collective charge in trauma-informed practices in schools to best
serve middle level students. By sharing one voice and accepting
the role of SC as the mental health experts in our schools, we will
see transformative change in education while serving our youth in
need by leading trauma-informed and trauma-sensitive schools.

Keywords: school counselors, school culture and climate,
trauma-informed practices

This We Believe characteristics:
● Comprehensive guidance and support services meet the
needs of young adolescents.

● Educators value young adolescents and are prepared to
teach them.

● Every student’s academic and personal development is
guided by an adult advocate.

● The school environment is inviting, safe, inclusive, and
supportive of all.

When considering the role of the School Counselor
(SC), a variety of tasks come to mind. Whether it is school-
wide scheduling, guiding students towards a future career,
completing special education meetings and paperwork, or
organizing standardized exams, the school counseling role
is one of the most undefined in our middle schools.
Surprisingly, SCs typically do not study the aforementioned
tasks in their Counseling Education Programs. Instead, they
are trained to meet the mental health needs of the student
(American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2012;
Gruman, Marston, & Koon, 2013), including, among
others, nurturing resilience and creating and supporting
opportunities for students to overcome the barriers they
often face. In some cases, administrators often leave school
counselors out of administrative leadership meetings where
important decisions are made about the direction of the
school. The degree of trauma exposure among our ado-
lescent students makes it an imperative for school leader-
ship to engage in ensuring school-wide systems and
practices are in place. There is no better point person in
school leadership to facilitate this effort than school
counselors.

There is no better point person in school leader-
ship to facilitate this [school-wide trauma-
informed] effort than school counselors.

26 Middle School Journal September 2019

In this article, we will reexamine the role of the SC
through the lens of This We Believe: The Keys to Educating Young
Adolescents (The Association for Middle Level Education (for-
merly National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010),
specifically the characteristics related toCulture andCommunity
(NMSA, 2010), and illuminate the many reasons their voices
and perspectives are essential to school-wide enactment of
trauma-informed practices. As a statewide Program
Coordinator for Comprehensive School Counseling, univer-
sity-based teacher educators, and a statewide Program
Consultant in the Division of Student Success focused on
trauma-informed practice and youth mental health first aid,
we believe it is essential SCs have a voice at the table regarding
school-wide decisions. Further, we also advocate that they lead
the collective charge in trauma-informed practices in schools
to best serve middle level students.

What does it mean to be
trauma-informed?
The conception of trauma-informed care emerged from the
disciplines of medicine and mental health services to better
respond to those with a history of trauma who were seeking
their services (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment,
2014). Commensurate with this response was an increasing
recognition of the relationship between childhood trau-
matic stress and significant health and other challenges
experienced later in life (Anda et al., 2006; Felitti et al.,
1998). In their study of Adverse Childhood Experiences
(ACEs), Felitti et al. (1998) found a relationship between
childhood exposure to adverse experiences and multiple
risk factors in adulthood that can result in earlier mortality.
Researchers and practitioners across disciplines continue to
refer to ACEs, described later, in framing their responses
and supports for those affected by trauma (Wolpow,
Johnson, Hertel, & Kincaid, 2016).

Now broadly adopted nationally, those responses are
referred to across disciplines as “trauma-informed care”
(Thomas, Crosby, &Vanderhaar, 2019). Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) Center
for Substance Abuse Treatment (2014) provided a relevant
approach including acknowledgement of the prevalence of
trauma, recognition of the impact of these experiences on all
individuals, use of trauma-sensitive practices and policies, and
avoidance of actions that may re-traumatize the individual.
Hanson and Lang (2016) recognized a need to look across
fields involved in trauma-informed care to clarify the term

and understand how it was operationalized. As a result of their
review across multiple organizations, they mapped 15 com-
ponents resulting in identification of three domains: (a) per-
sonnel/professional development; (b) changes within
organizations; and (c) changes in practice. Middle schools fall
within the larger, trauma-informed, multi-tiered child service
system of care that includes the school (Chafouleas, Johnson,
Overstreet, & Santos, 2016; National Child Traumatic Stress
Network [NCTSN], 2017) with the SC playing a role within
each domain.

Trauma and the young adolescent

Early adolescence is marked by rapid development across the
spectrum of physical, emotional, and intellectual changes,
and includes “growth related to puberty as well as a range of
psychosocial changes associated with developing an increas-
ingly refined identity” (Mann, Kristjansson, Sigfusdottir, &
Smith, 2014, p. 2). Development of adolescents “lead[s] to the
maturation of a physical body, but the brain lags behind”
(Child Welfare Information Gateway [CWIG], 2015). The
adolescent brain undergoes significant changes (Blakemore,
Burnett, & Dahl, 2010; CWIG, 2015); however, the frontal
lobe, the part of the brain impacting decision making, has yet
to fully mature. The lack of maturation in this region of the
brain is associated with unpredictable and impulsive behavior,
forgetfulness, increased risk-taking, and questionable deci-
sion making. To further complicate the reality of young ado-
lescent development, the limbic system within the brain,
which controls and regulates emotions, also lacks maturation
resulting in stronger, more unpredictable emotional
responses to the experience of growing up (Blakemore, 2008;
Chamberlain, 2009; CWIG 2015).

Adolescent students with a history of trauma can have
long term effects on brain development and suffer from
more extreme impulsivity, increased difficulty with higher-
level thinking and feeling as well as significant delays in
academic and social skills (Whittle et al., 2013).
Researchers have also noted that “exposure to trauma
impairs early adolescent developmental tasks (Frydman &
Mayor, 2017, p. 238). The American Psychiatric
Association (2000) [APA] suggested that childhood
trauma can lead to various negative mental health condi-
tions during adolescence. These conditions range from
posttraumatic stress disorder (PSTD), substance abuse,
suicide attempts, and depressive disorders (APA, 2000;
Gallus, Shreffler, Merten, & Cox, 2015).

www.amle.org 27

A trauma informed middle school
Consistent with This We Believe (National Middle School
Association, 2010), trauma-informed practices highlight
the need for schools to create an “environment [that] is
inviting, safe, inclusive and supportive of all”(p. 33),
implement structures so “every student’s academic and
personal development [is] guided by an adult advoca-
te”(p. 35), and provide “comprehensive guidance and
support services [to] meet the needs of young adoles-
cents” (p. 37). Most importantly, trauma-informed prac-
tices ensure that “health and wellness are supported in
curricula, school-wide programs and related policies” (p.
38) that benefit all students, particularly those impacted
by trauma.

A trauma informed approach in middle schools means
the climate and culture is grounded in an awareness of
emotional vulnerabilities of this age group and strive to
treat the students with respect, compassion, and support. It
also means that all elements of the school such as instruc-
tional choices, classroom management, and building-wide
policies and practices, are integrated within the aforemen-
tioned larger system of care for affected adolescents and
their families. It also means that all adults (a) realize the
impact of trauma and pathways to healing; (b) recognize
the signs and symptoms of trauma in students, staff, and
families; (c) respond to trauma by incorporating that
knowledge into practices, procedures, and policies, and (d)
resist traumatization of students by eliminating practices
that can trigger students exposed to trauma. (SAMHSA,
2014).

Researchers and practitioners in fields such as psy-
chology and social work increasingly recognize the signif-
icant need for schools, in general, to be sites for delivery
of trauma-informed practices (Chafouleas et al., 2016).
Because the inherent changes occurring in the physical,
emotional, social, and mental lives of adolescents can
sometimes mimic signs and symptoms of mental health
challenges, it is especially critical that adults in middle
schools are aware of the signs and symptoms in their
students. Additionally, the more trauma students experi-
ence, the more at risk they are for engaging in dangerous
behavior, decreased academic performance, and
increased school absences (Perfect, Turley, Carlson,
Yohanna, & Saint Gilles, 2016). These results necessitate
connecting middle school students with the SC and others
who can support them, as well as ensuring all school-wide
practices are trauma-informed (Cole, Eisner, Gregory, &

Ristuccia, 2013). Given the evidence that trauma-informed
practices can help educators get in front of these risks,
they are then able to engage students in unique ways that
offer support, understanding, and draw from students’
strengths. In spite of the complexities inherent in working
across these elements, middle school environments
include several organizational structures within which to
provide trauma-informed interventions for those who
need them. The middle school, with its routines, consis-
tent presence in adolescents’ lives, and intentionality
around relationship building, can play a unique role
within the larger system of care.

The critical role of the school counselor

Schools have many options when it comes to who can
deliver mental health services; among these are school
social workers, school psychologists, drug and alcohol
counselors, and outside mental health consultants.
However, typically these professionals are not housed
within school buildings and are not part of the day-to-day
operations of middle schools. Given the extent and nature
of trauma exposure, we believe it is critical that the pri-
mary individual supporting trauma-informed practices is
physically present in the school daily, integrated within
school routines, and has ongoing relationships with stu-
dents, teachers, and staff. Importantly, given these criteria,
we assert that the SC is well-positioned to enact the
American Institutes for Research’s (2016) guiding princi-
ples for school-wide implementation of trauma-informed
programs in five key domains: (a) supporting staff devel-
opment; (b) creating a safe and supportive environment;
(c) assessing needs and planning services; (d) involving
consumers; and (e) adapting practices. Additionally,
trauma-informed care should connect across the school,
and the approach and understanding embraced by every
adult to ensure a safe, inclusive environment with consis-
tent policies and practices (National Child Traumatic
Stress Network, Schools Committee, 2017). A whole
school approach needs to include willing staff members at
every grade level led by a visible, collaborative leader like
a SC who can coordinate a range of efforts across the
school.

In addition to their educational training, SCs are often
very knowledgeable about students’ histories. While many
topics discussed in a school counseling office can be confi-
dential, it is not out of bounds for SCs to inform teachers and

28 Middle School Journal September 2019

other stakeholders in a student’s life about issues and con-
cerns and request grace and support for the student. As
a result, SCs become the conduit to teachers and stake-
holders so they may be aware that extra support is needed.

Finally, SCs have the capacity to facilitate meetings
that include school staff members, parents/guardians,
community members who are a part of the student’s life
and the student to better understand the student and
their decisions. This group also offers support to the stu-
dent. By bringing family members, staff members and the
student to the table, an action plan can be created and
implemented that includes weekly or bi-weekly check-ins
along with accountability sheets or progress monitoring.
These tools help the student become more accountable to
the goals set in the meeting and serve as a way for SCs to
quickly check in on the student’s well-being.

Critical foundational beliefs

Establishing a trauma informed middle school requires
consideration of many aspects of schooling. Critical foun-
dational beliefs about children, schools, care, and learning
can impact the success of implementation. We contend
that supporting a strengths-based perspective and estab-
lishing a receptive school climate are two critical founda-
tional features of a trauma-informed school.

Supporting a strengths-based, “healing centered”
perspective. A trauma-informed school ensures that
teachers, administrators, and SCs work from a strengths
perspective that promotes healing and dispels deficit views
of young adolescents. Nearly 47% of children experience
at least one adverse childhood experience (ACE) (Felitti
et al., 1998). ACEs are potentially traumatic events that
can have both immediate as well as long term impact on
middle level students (Felitti et al., 1998), affecting their
ability to cope. Further, these experiences may occur to
the family and community as well as the child, including
circumstances such as maltreatment, stress within the
family, violence in the community and natural disasters
(van der Kolk, 2005). While 47% is the national average of
children experiencing ACEs, the rates vary by state,
region, and school. Given the high incidents of these
experiences among the middle school population, as well
as the increased risk for trauma exposure in adolescence
(Ruzek et al., 2007), we encourage a strengths-based
approach that recognizes middle level students’ assets and
resilience (Zacarian, Alvarez-Ortiz, & Haynes, 2017). To
that end, every school-based professional in contact with

students should resist subscribing to deficit perspectives
and limited views of middle schoolers. Deficit perspectives
have profound consequences for students and adults. This
line of thinking may shape attitudes and behaviors among
school staff, who may contend that there is nothing they
can do to support students. They may fail to recognize the
strengths and resilience of students who experience
trauma. Thus, we advocate a strengths-based approach
and a “healing centered” (Ginwright, 2018) stance that
can be led by a SC in order to create a “shift” in how
middle school educators approach students and their
circumstances, viewing them holistically and focusing on
their well-being.

Establishing a receptive climate. A trauma-informed
school supports students by working to address structures
and/or policies that might cause trauma or create
circumstances that retraumatize students (Oehlberg,
2008). Instead of responding to behavior caused by overly
restrictive or non-responsive practices, a proactive stance
creates a climate and culture where students who have
experienced trauma receive the support they need to be
successful in school. For example, Lisa Terrance, an
experienced SC who works at Metro Middle School in
a large mid-western city, describes the importance of
trauma-informed care at the middle school level and the
significance of proactive practices by teachers:

Having teachers form relationships with students
makes it easier to spot when a kid struggles with
previous trauma, so we can get them the support they
need. Teachers and instructional aides are our front
lines. They are the first to spot any issues, and when
informed, can get the supports needed for their stu-
dents. I work with kids all the time that cope with so
much trauma, grown adults would struggle to main-
tain composure.

Ms. Terrance’s story illustrates of the importance SCs
facilitation of and reinforcement of strong relationship-
building between teachers and students, as well as the
critical need for trauma-informed practices in middle
schools. When teachers and SCs have sound relationships
with their students and are aware of the effects of trauma,
they can proactively create a climate that will help students
reach their potential.

Charge of school counselors

For SCs to lead the trauma-informed work at their schools,
the discrepancy between SCs as mental health

www.amle.org 29

professionals and the mental health experts in their
respective schools must be a strong consideration for dis-
tricts across the state and country. Furthermore, SCs
across districts and states must share one voice in accept-
ing this as their role. Because the role has often been
undefined and quite frankly, unclear, for so many educa-
tors (including SCs), there is a wide array of what SCs are
expected to do. This role differs throughout any given
state and can even differ among schools that are only a few
miles away from one another. By sharing one voice and
accepting the role of SC as the mental health experts in
our schools, we will see transformative change in educa-
tion while serving our youth in need by leading trauma-
informed and trauma-sensitive schools.

To align the role of SCs, the authors of this manu-
script recommend that districts and schools adopt the
American School Counseling Association National Model
(ASCA, 2012) or that they follow identified state SC stan-
dards of practice. The ASCA model submits that each SC
should have a SC to student relationship of 250:1 and
spend a majority of their time in direct services to students
with only a small fraction of their time in indirect services.
(e.g. testing, administrative work, discipling students,
etc.). For many SCs in our mid-western state and across
the nation, their practice is reversed. Thus, SCs often
spend most of their time in indirect services. The ASCA
National Model also advises SCs to become members of
the educational team who use leadership, advocacy, and
collaboration skills to promote system change as appro-
priate. To facilitate this systemic change, schools should
consider implementation of the four components of the
ASCA National Model (2012) for SCs, (a) foundation; (b)
management; (c) delivery; and (d) accountability. By
intentionally naming trauma informed teaching within
a comprehensive school counseling program (ASCA,
2019) schools can move toward creating supportive struc-
tures for all students and stakeholders within their schools.

Foundation

Addressing the foundation aspect of the ASCA National
Model suggests that SCs need to identify program needs
(i.e. trauma-informed practices), enhance the learning
process for all students through focusing on academics,
career and personal/social development and ultimately
understand the professional competencies of the profes-
sion to guide their decision-making. By having a strong
foundation for their work, SCs have an opportunity to

place a high priority on trauma-informed practices by
creating strong School Counseling Core Curriculum
(ASCA, 2014) lessons (formerly known as guidance les-
sons) for all students. These lessons help students to learn
and understand skills that may help them begin to work
through some of their own trauma and help SCs to better
structure their time to meet the needs of their students.
For example, a focus on social and emotional health has
been a long-held, developmentally appropriate practice in
middle level schools (Jackson & Davis, 2000; National
Middle School Association, 2010). Social emotional health
is a cornerstone of trauma-informed teaching which has
the potential to improve students’ overall health (Taylor,
Oberle, Durlak, & Weissberg, 2017). When school and
classroom structures and routines allow for student dis-
covery, collaboration, meaningful discussion, guided
reflective practices, choice, and flexible learning oppor-
tunities, it creates a climate where young adolescents feel
respected, valued, and engaged. Further, in spaces where
students have choice and decision-making opportunities,
it is easier to engage them in metacognitive work that will
lead to social and emotional growth.

Management

SCs can develop competencies and self-assessment tools
through the management component that will help them
assess and measure where they are in developing a trauma-
informed and trauma-sensitive school. This component
also allows SCs to assess their use of time to evaluate or
reevaluate their direct or indirect services to students.
Through the management of the school counseling pro-
gram, SCs will also develop curriculum for small and large
group core curriculum school counseling lessons that may
teach students proactive ways to cope with a variety of
emotions.

One example would be implementing and supporting
mindfulness throughout the school as a core component of
being trauma-informed (Sibinga, Webb, Ghazarian, & Ellen,
2016). The inherently transitory aspects of young adolescence
coupledwith the development ofmetacognitionmakemiddle
school a perfect place to implement the practice of mindful-
ness to teach regulation of both thoughts and emotions, as
well as the variety of other benefits the practice has to offer. In
offering the students the tools it takes to focus on a singular
task, even if such a task is as ordinary as breathing, the practice
lays a foundation for being able to focus on educational con-
tent and trains themind to deepen andmaintain higher order

30 Middle School Journal September 2019

thought (Chiesa & Serretti, 2009). These practices aid in
prefrontal cortex development as well as metacognitive
development (Blakemore et al., 2010; Brown & Knowles,
2014). It teaches focus as well as fosters patience and practice,
promoting positive relationships, building community, and
establishing a culture devoted to becoming oneself. Research
has demonstrated that mindfulness practices improve well-
being, decrease stress, anxiety and PTSD symptoms in both
youth and adults (Sibinga et al., 2016).

Delivery

The SC will be able to identify and deliver services to
students, staff members, parents, and the community
through the delivery component of school counseling.
They will also work to connect students with outside ser-
vices that may help based on the students’ personal and
social needs. Additionally, it allows for SCs to develop
opportunities for learning throughout the building. It is
critical for teachers and school staff to have the opportu-
nity to learn about the impact and symptoms of trauma,
and about the appropriate enactment of trauma-informed
practices. SCs are prepared to disseminate this informa-
tion and coach teachers in how to do this. Schools can
allow SCs this time while positioning them as experts on
trauma-informed practices at the building level, poten-
tially increasing teacher efficacy and buy-in.

Accountability

SCs use various school data to assess their school’s trauma-
informed practices and sensitivity to trauma through the
accountability component of the ASCA model. This will
help all stakeholders to better understand where the
school is in relation to the enactment of trauma-informed
practices and where they need to go to further their focus
on trauma. Data-based decisions are essential to develop-
ing school-wide policies and practices that support trauma-
informed practices (Chafouleas et al., 2016). In fact, to
analyze all data available is in essence a trauma-informed
practice. In reality, schools already collect a variety of data
and universal indicators that they can use in multiple ways
to support and enact trauma-informed practices. The key
is to utilize the best data to build a climate and culture
that will support the overall health and well-being of
young adolescents. While data related to academic per-
formance is essential, three types of data are critical to
policies and practices that are responsive to trauma (a)
attendance and course passing data; (b) behavior and

discipline data; (c) perception of experiences and quali-
tative data.

Attendance data and course passing. It is important
for SCs and other school leaders to monitor attendance
data on a regular basis to ensure students are in school
and to be alert to any changes in attendance patterns.
Changes in attendance can reveal patterns of a child’s
home life and structures outside of school. Chronic
absenteeism could be one indicator of trauma in
a student’s life. Closely related to attendance are changes
in academic performance. By monitoring course passing
and academic progress, SCs get yet another view of the
student in order to ask questions that will lead to better
understanding their individual needs. These questions
have the potential to help SCs support school-wide efforts
to become trauma-informed (NCTSN, 2008).

Behavior and discipline data. Data related to a student
behavior provide insights into students’ experiences in
classrooms but also reveals patterns in school-wide
discipline procedures and policies that may be
exacerbating problems and re-traumatizing students.
Patterns of behavioral infractions often suggest that
something deeper is going on in a student’s life. Such data
may also suggest challenges teachers are facing in
regulating their own emotional responses to misbehavior,
as well as implicit bias that yields greater punishment of
students of color (Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015). By
monitoring these data, SCs can see these infractions and
begin to ask the students (along with a potential team of
stakeholders) questions that dig deeper into their
histories. While misbehavior is not always an indicator of
trauma, SCs may find that trauma does have a part to play
in the choices and behaviors that both students’ and
teachers exhibit. Further, SCs can use existing tools to
help identify those behaviors. Research demonstrates how
traumatic experiences in childhood lead to risk behaviors
as youth develop, as well as impact their self-regulation
(Wolpow et al., 2016). Access to data on students’ self-
report risk behaviors (Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2018) and perception of harm can offer
critical information to SC’s and other staff about the
specific risk behaviors to target for prevention. With that
information, the SC can coordinate efforts from a trauma-
informed lens to address some root causes of behavior,
support students in self-regulation, and raise awareness
towards improvement of discipline policies and
procedures that may be re-traumatizing students and
exacerbate disproportionate school exclusion.

www.amle.org 31

Perception of experiences and qualitative data.
Student perceptions are essential in understanding
current experiences and needs including social,
emotional, academic, and basic needs. Additionally,
qualitative data collected by one-on-one conferences or
observation of student interactions is essential to helping
teachers and counselors gain insights into students’ lived
experiences and the trauma they might be experiencing.
While more time-intensive, qualitative data provide
context to quantitative data collected by the school. For
example, a school counselor from our state implements
what she calls meeting minutes. Similar to advisory
practices, this counselor moves throughout the school and
meets with individual students for one-minute, quick
conferences. She collects this qualitative data to help her
better understand the needs of students but also to help
become informed about individual student needs and
concerns. Collecting this type of data can also provide
a school-wide picture of some elements of culture and
climate such as a sense of belonging, safety, and
happiness. With a large caseload, one minute per student
helps this SC learn who needs follow-up and who she
should absolutely ensure is on her radar.

Beyond caring for students

Anyone, including school counselors and teachers, who
are in a caring profession may find that they are experi-
encing compassion fatigue, burnout, and secondary trau-
matic stress (Wolpow et al., 2016). Every single day in
schools, the adults who work with students (teachers,
counselors, instructional assistants, coaches, etc.) confront
the unspeakable consequences of the trauma exposure
and resulting symptoms that often manifest inside schools.
It is critical for schools to recognize the secondary trauma
experienced by adults working with students who have
experienced trauma.

Secondary traumatic stress

In secondary traumatic stress, also considered vicarious
trauma, an individual’s symptoms may be similar to those of
someonewithPTSD(Figley, 1999). Secondary traumatic stress
affects one’s capacity to feel empathetic or capable and can
significantly impact mental, psychological, and physical well-
being. Hill (2011) found in a qualitative study of urban tea-
chers that self-care methods such as debriefing with
colleagues, reading trauma related information, and visiting
a therapist helped teachers cope with compassion fatigue. It is

critical that middle schools raise awareness of the specific risk
factors for secondary traumatic stress and support adult well-
being and self-care. For SCs, this means practicing routine
awareness of your ownwell-being and taking specific actions to
maintain life balance as well as helping teachers understand
the importance of self-care. It also means utilizing tools
developed to help identify secondary trauma as well as offer
suggestions formanaging it. One of themany tools available is
the Professional Quality of Life Professional Quality of Lifetest
(proQUOL) (Stamm, 2009) that allows individuals to assess
where they are on compassion satisfaction, compassion fati-
gue, and the two sub constructs of compassion fatigue which
are burnout and secondary traumatic stress. This resource
along with additional information and aids are available at
https://proqol.org/ProQol_Test.html. There aremany other
resources for schools to use to support their teachers (e.g.
Olga Phoenix Self-care Wheel, 2013; The Trauma Responsive
Educational Practice Project, n.d.) as they process their own
traumatic stress.

Administrative team actively supporting teacher
wellbeing

School administrators play a central role in supporting
teacher wellbeing in the face of trauma. While adminis-
trators cannot force teachers to engage in self-care on
their own, research has shown that there are other factors
that can help mitigate the impact of secondary traumatic
stress including collegial support and mentoring (Ludick
& Figley, 2017). Administrators must make secondary
traumatic stress a priority and take a pulse on the status of
their staff by assessing the levels of burnout and secondary
stress. They can also support staff by ensuring there are
dedicated spaces and times for adults in the building to
formally and informally debrief and discuss stressful events
specifically related to student’s trauma exposure as well as
opportunities for inspirational celebrations of student
success in the face of adversity. Administrators also can
provide mentoring opportunities which are particularly
important for new teachers since inexperience in the field
is another risk factor for secondary traumatic stress.

Conclusion

The rates of trauma experienced by our students in
middle schools, along with the risks associated with sec-
ondary traumatic stress for adults that work with them

32 Middle School Journal September 2019

https://proqol.org/ProQol_Test.html

means that middle schools can no longer afford to be
without trauma-informed information and practices.

The rates of trauma experienced by our students in
middle schools, along with the risks associated with
secondary traumatic stress for adults that work with
them means that middle schools can no longer
afford to be without trauma-informed information
and practices.

Furthermore, these practices, delivered across the school
by adults in different roles, need to be coordinated and
comprehensive (Chafouleas et al., 2016). SCs are posi-
tioned perfectly in schools to lead the charge on trauma-
informed care. They play a key role in ushering imple-
mentation of a trauma-informed school and ensuring its’
long-term success. When middle schools pay particular
attention to the Culture and Community characteristics out-
lined in This We Believe (2010) and include intentional
advocacy for positioning SCs to lead within schools,
trauma-informed practices can provide much needed
academic and emotional supports for students.

Funding

This research was supported by the University of
Louisville’s Cooperative Consortium for Transdisciplinary
Social Justice Research. The Consortium is directed by the
Anne Branden Institute for Social Justice Research and the
Muhammad Ali Institute for Peace and Justice, in colla-
boration with the Brandeis Laboratory for Citizenship, the
Commonwealth Institute of Kentucky, and Health
Sciences Center Office of Diversity and Inclusion.

References

American Institute for Research. (2016). Trauma informed care curricu-

lum. Retrieved from https://www.air.org/resource/trauma-
informed-care-curriculum

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical
manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC:
Author.

American School Counselor Association. (2012). The ASCA national
model: A framework for school counseling programs (3rd ed.).
Alexandria, VA: Author.

American School Counselor Association. (2014). Mindsets and beha-
viors for student success: K-12 college- and career-readiness standards for
every student. Alexandria, VA: Author.

American School Counselor Association. (2019). ASCA school counselor
professional standards & competencies. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C.,
Perry, B. D., … Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse

and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of
evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of
Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174–186. doi:10.1007/
s00406-005-0624-4

Blakemore, S., Burnett, S., & Dahl, R. E. (2010). The role of puberty
in the developing adolescent brain. Human Brain Mapping, 31(6),
926–933. doi:10.1002/hbm.21052

Blakemore, S. J. (2008). Development of the social brain during
adolescence. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(1),
40–49. doi:10.1080/17470210701508715

Brown, D. F., & Knowles, T. (2014). What every middle school teacher
should know. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Youth risk behavior
surveillance system. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/
healthyyouth/data/yrbs/index.htm

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2014. Appendix C of treatment
improvement protocol series, no. 57: Trauma-informed care in behavioral
health services. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health
Services Administration. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/books/NBK207202/

Chafouleas, S. M., Johnson, A. H., Overstreet, S., & Santos, N. M.
(2016). Toward a blueprint for trauma-informed service delivery
in schools. School Mental Health, 8(1), 144–162. doi:10.1007/
s12310-015-9166-8

Chamberlain, L. (2009). The amazing teen brain: What every child
advocate needs to know. Child Law Practice, 28(2), 22–24.

Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2009). A systematic review of neurobiological
and clinical features of mindfulness meditations. Psychological
Medicine, 40(8), 1239–1252. doi:10.1017/s0033291709991747

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2015). Understanding the effects of
maltreatment on brain development. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau.

Cole, S. F., Eisner, A., Gregory, M., & Ristuccia, J. (2013). Helping
traumatized children learn volume 2: Safe, supportive learning environ-
ments that benefit all children. Creating and advocating for
trauma-sensitive schools. Trauma and Learning Policy Initiative in
partnership of Massachusetts Advocates for Children and Harvard
Law School. Retrieved from www.traumasensitiveschools.org

Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F.,
Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of
childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the
leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood
Experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine,
14(4), 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8

Figley, C. R. (1999). Compassion fatigue: Toward a new understand-
ing of the costs of caring. In B. H. Stamm (Ed.), Secondary trau-
matic stress: Self-care issues for clinicians, researchers, and educators (pp.
3–28). Baltimore, MD: Sidran Press.

Frydman, J. S., & Mayor, C. (2017). Trauma and early adolescent
development: Case examples from a trauma- informed public
health middle school program. Children & Schools, 39(4),
238–247. doi:10.1093/cs/cdx017

Gallus, K., Shreffler, K., Merten, M., & Cox, R. (2015). Interpersonal
trauma and depressive symptoms in early adolescents: Exploring the
moderating roles of parent and school connectedness. Journal of
Early Adolescence, 35(7), 990–1013. doi:10.1177/0272431614548067

Ginwright, S. (2018). The future of healing: Shifting form trauma-informed
care to healing centered engagement. Retrieved from https://medium.
com/@ginwright/the-future-of-healing-shifting-from-trauma-
informed-care-to-healing-centered-engagement-634f557ce69c

Gruman, D. H., Marston, T., & Koon, H. (2013). Bring mental health
needs into focus through school counseling program transformation.

www.amle.org 33

https://www.air.org/resource/trauma-informed-care-curriculum

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21052

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470210701508715

https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/index.htm

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207202/

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12310-015-9166-8

http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291709991747

Trauma-Sensitive Schools: A Whole-School Approach

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8

http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdx017

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272431614548067

https://medium.com/@ginwright/the-future-of-healing-shifting-from-trauma-informed-care-to-healing-centered-engagement-634f557ce69c

Professional School Counseling, 16(5), 333–341. doi:10.1177/
2156759X1201600506

Hanson, R. F., & Lang, J. (2016). A critical look at trauma-informed
care among agencies and systems serving maltreated youth and
their families. Child Maltreatment, 21(2), 95–100. doi:10.1177/
1077559516635274

Hill, A. C. (2011). The cost of caring: An investigation in the effects of
teaching traumatized children in urban elementary settings. (Doctoral
dissertation). University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.

Jackson, A., & Davis, G. A. (2000). Turning points 2000: Educating
adolescents in the 21st century. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Ludick, M., & Figley, C. R. (2017). Toward a mechanism for secondary
trauma induction and reduction: Reimagining a theory of secondary
traumatic stress. Traumatology, 23(1), 112. doi:10.1037/trm0000096

Mann, M. J., Kristjansson, A. L., Sigfusdottir, I. D., & Smith, M. L.
(2014). The impact of negative life events on young adolescents:
Comparing the relative vulnerability of middle level, high school,
and college-age students. RMLE Online: Research in Middle Level
Education , 38(2), 1–13. Retrieved from https://search-
ebscohostcom.echo.louisville.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
eric&AN=EJ1044346&site=ehost-live

National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee. 2008.
Psychological and behavioral impact of trauma: Middle school students. Los
Angeles, CA, and Durham, NC: National Center for Child Traumatic
Stress. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/resources/psychologi
cal-and-behavioral-impact-trauma-middle-school-students

National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee. 2017.
Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system
framework. Los Angeles, CA, and Durham, NC: National Center
for Child Traumatic Stress. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.
org/sites/default/files/resources//creating_supporting_sustain
ing_trauma_informed_schools_a_systems_framework

National Middle School Association. (2010). This We Believe: Keys to
educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

Oehlberg, B. (2008). Why schools need to be trauma-informed.
Trauma and Loss: Research and Interventions, 8(2), 1–4. Retrieved
from http://www.traumainformedcareproject.org/resources/
WhySchoolsNeedToBeTraumaInformed(2)

Okonofua, J. A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2015). Two strikes: Race and the
disciplining of young students. Psychological Science, 26(5),
617–624. doi:10.1177/0956797615570365

Olga Phoenix Project. (2013). Self-care wheel. Olga Phoenix Project:
Healing for Social Change. Retrieved from http://www.olgaphoe
nix.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Self-Care-Wheel-
template-English

Perfect, M., Turley, M., Carlson, J., Yohanna, J., & Saint Gilles, M.
(2016). School-related outcomes of traumatic event exposure and
traumatic stress symptoms in students: A systematic review of
research from 1990 to 2015. School Mental Health, 8(1), 7–43.
doi:10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2

Ruzek, J. I., Brymer, M. J., Jacobs, A. K., Layne, C. M.,
Vernberg, E. M., & Watson, P. J. (2007). Psychological first aid.
Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 29(1), 17–49. doi:10.17744/
mehc.29.1.5racqxjueafabgwp

Sibinga, E. M. S., Webb, L., Ghazarian, S. R., & Ellen, J. M. (2016).
School-based mindfulness instruction: An RCT. Pediatrics, 137(1),
1–8. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-2532

Stamm, B. H. (2009). Professional quality of life: Compassion satisfaction
and fatigue version 5 (ProQOL). 2011-03-20. Retrieved from https://
proqol.org/ProQol_Test.html

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014).
SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed
approach. Rockville, MD: Author.

Taylor, R., Oberle, E., Durlak, J., & Weissberg, R. (2017). Promoting
positive youth development through school-based social and emo-
tional learning interventions: A meta-analysis of follow-up effects.
Child Development, 88(4), 1156–1171. doi:10.1111/cdev.12864

The Trauma Responsive Educational Practice Project. (n.d.)
Retrieved from https://www.trepeducator.org

Thomas, M. S., Crosby, S. D., & Vanderhaar, J. E. (2019). Trauma
informed practices in schools across two decades: An interdisci-
plinary review of research. Review of Research in Education, 42(1),
422–452. doi:10.3102/0091732X18821123

van der Kolk, B. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder: Toward
a rational diagnosis of children with complex trauma histories.
Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 401–408. doi:10.3928/00485713-
20050501-06

Whittle, S., Dennison, M., Vijayakumar, N., Simmons, J. G.,
Yücel, M., Lubman, D. I., … Allen, N. B. (2013). Childhood
maltreatment and psychopathology affect brain development
during adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(9), 940–952. doi:10.1016/j.
jaac.2013.06.007

Wolpow, R., Johnson,M.M.,Hertel, R., &Kincaid, S.O. (2016).The heart of
learning and teaching: Compassion, resiliency, and academic success (3rd
ed.). Olympia: Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public
Instruction (OSPI) Compassionate Schools.

Zacarian, D., Alvarez-Ortiz, L., & Haynes, J. (2017). Teaching to
strengths: Supporting students living with trauma, violence, and chronic
stress. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Penny B. Howell, Ed.D., is an associate professor in the Department of Middle and Secondary Education at the University of Louisville. Email:
penny.howell@louisville.edu

Shelley Thomas, Ed.D., is an associate professor in the Department of Middle and Secondary Education at the University of Louisville.
Email: shelley.thomas@louisville.edu

Damien Sweeney, Ed.D., is the Program Coordinator for Comprehensive School Counseling at the Kentucky Department of Education.
Email: damien.sweeney@education.ky.gov

Judi Vanderhaar, Ph.D.,works in the Division of Student Success for the Kentucky Department of Education. Email: Judi.vanderhaar@education.ky.gov.

34 Middle School Journal September 2019

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2156759X1201600506

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077559516635274

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/trm0000096

https://search-ebscohostcom.echo.louisville.edu/login.aspx?direct=true%26db=eric%26AN=EJ1044346%26site=ehost-live

https://www.nctsn.org/resources/psychological-and-behavioral-impact-trauma-middle-school-students

https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources//creating_supporting_sustaining_trauma_informed_schools_a_systems_framework

http://www.traumainformedcareproject.org/resources/WhySchoolsNeedToBeTraumaInformed(2)

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797615570365

http://www.olgaphoenix.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Self-Care-Wheel-template-English

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2

http://dx.doi.org/10.17744/mehc.29.1.5racqxjueafabgwp

http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-2532

https://proqol.org/ProQol_Test.html

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864

https://www.trepeducator.org

http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821123

http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-06

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.06.007

What does it mean to be trauma-informed?

Trauma and the young adolescent

Atrauma informed middle school

The critical role of the school counselor

Critical foundational beliefs

Outline placeholder

Supporting astrengths-based, “healing centered” perspective

Establishing areceptive climate

Charge of school counselors

Foundation

Management

Delivery

Accountability

Attendance data and course passing

Behavior and discipline data

Perception of experiences and qualitative data

Beyond caring for students

Secondary traumatic stress

Administrative team actively supporting teacher wellbeing

Conclusion

Funding

References

Notes on contributors

Turn in your highest-quality paper
Get a qualified writer to help you with

“ Illustrate Trauma-Informed Teaching Practices and Interventions ”

Get high-quality paper

NEW! AI matching with writer

Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:

Turnitin Report

Formatting

Title Page

Citation

Outline

Place an Order