lab assignment

 

1. Complete each assignment on a Word doc or PDF file and upload into Canvas
2. Write answers in hardcopy Lab Manual and either scan or take a photo of the pages and upload them into Canvas.
3. Type answers in the textbox.  Please clearly show question numbers.

Lab 1

Type answers in the textbook or upload scanned/photographed pages:

1. Questions 1 through 14 on pages 8 – 16
2. Questions 15 through 21 on pages 18 – 21
3. Questions 22 through 25 on page 24

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1!|”OER$Physical$Geography$Lab$Manual!

Physical)Geography)Lab)Manual!
An#Open#Educational#Resource#(OER)!

Authored)by!
Waverly(C.(Ray,(Faculty(Lead((San(Diego!Mesa%College)!

Taya$C.$Lazootin$(San$Diego$State$University)!
Scott%J.%Crosier%(Cosumnes%River%College)!
Jeremy&G.&Patrich&(College&of&the&Canyons)!
Aline&Nortes&Gregorio&(Fullerton&College)!

1st$Edition,$2020!
Supported)in)part)by)the)!

Academic(Senate(for(California(Community(College’s(!
Open%Educational%Resources%Initiative!

Recommended(citation:(Ray,%Waverly%C.,%Lazootin,%Taya%C.,%Crosier,%Scott%J.,%Patrich,%Jeremy%G.,%&%Nortes%
Gregorio,(A.((2020).(Physical(Geography(Lab(Manual.(Retrieved”from”http://cageoglab.populr.me/manual.”
CC!BY!NC#4.0#license.!

Acknowledgments!
We#are#grateful#to#the#many#people#and#organizations#that#made#this#lab#manual#possible.#We#
would&like&to&thank&the&Open&Educational&Resources&Initiative&(OERI)&of&the&Academic!Senate&for&
California)Community)Colleges)for)their)vision)and)financial)support)for)this)lab)manual)with)
special(thanks(to(our(OER(liaison(Suzanne(Wakim((Butte(College)(for(her(guidance.(We(would(
also%like%to%thank%the%Zero%Textbook%Cost%team%at%the%College#of#the#Canyons#for#providing#early#
templates(and(recommendations.(Three(peer(reviewers,(Cady(Carmichael((College(of(Alameda),(
Vicki%Drake%(Santa%Monica%College),%and%Tiffany%Seeley%(East%Los%Angeles%College),%provided%
meaningful*and*insightful*feedback*on#an#earlier#draft#of#the#lab#manual.#Thanks#also#goes#to#
Trudi&Radtke&(Imperial&Valley&College)&for&stellar&copyediting.&!

Guiding’Quotes!
“Without(geography,(the(world(and(how(it(fits(together(is(a(mystery.(Geography(is(a(skill(
and$vision$that$opens$the$door#for#learners#to#better#understand#the#interconnected#
world&around&them.”!

Vicki%Phillips%(31%August%2020,%Forbes)!
“Students)study)geography)to)understand)that)the)Earth)is)changing.)Then)they)
scientifically+and+analytically+think+about+why+it+is+changing.#And#they#even#dig#deeper#
than%that.%Should%the%Earth%be%changing%in%these%ways?%Is%there%anything%that%I%can%do%
about&it&or&that&I&should&be&doing&about&it?&This&not&only&captures&the&heart&of&spatial&
thinking—inquiry’and’problem!based&learning—but$also!empowers(students(to(become(
decision(makers,(to(make(a(difference(in(this(changing(world(of(ours.”!

Joseph’Kerski'(Summer’2011,’ArcUser)!

Cover&photos&from&Unsplash!(clockwise*from*top*left):*!
Matteo&Di&Iorio&(Death&Valley,&California),&Jessica&Furtney&(Tallulah&Falls,&Georgia),&Lee&Junda&(Singapore),&and&Cosmin&Serban#(California#coast).

!

2!|”OER$Physical$Geography$Lab$Manual!

Tips%for%Students!
Welcome’to’your’physical’geography’lab’manual!’We’hope’the’lab’exercises’bring’a’new’
appreciation’for’the’planet’we’call’home.’Here’are’some’tips’to’support’your’learning.!

Tip$1.$Know$What’s$Being$Asked$of$You!
The$questions$in$the$lab$manual$can$be$classified$using$the$revised$version$of$Bloom’s$
Taxonomy((Bloom(&(Krathwohl,(1956;(Anderson(&(Sosniak,&1994).&Starting&from&the&bottom&of&
the$pyramid:!

●! Remember!questions)ask)you)to)recall)facts)and)basic)concepts.)You)may)be)asked)to)
recreate&a&sketch,&label&a&diagram,&define&a&key&term,&or&identify&a&process.&These&are&
the$most$basic$questions$that$are#designed#to#ensure#that#you#grasp#the#fundamental#
knowledge)and)skills)in)a)lab.)!

●! Understand)questions)ask)you)to)explain)ideas)and)concepts)with)prompts)like)describe,)
observe,(and(summarize.(!

●! Apply%questions)ask)you)to)calculate)or)adapt)information.)Several’question’prompts’
start%with%“Apply%What%You%Learned”—this%means%that%you%will%take%the%information%
presented(in(the(lab((or(a(previous(lab)(and(apply(it(to(a(new(situation.!

●! Analyze!questions)ask)you)to)make)connections)among)different)ideas)by)making#
comparisons*and*interpreting*information.*Several*question*prompts*start*with*“Use*
Your%Critical%Thinking%Skills”,%which%means%that%you%need%to%bring%in%other%ideas%because%
these%questions%can’t%be%answered%simply%by%reading%the%information%in%the%lab.%!

●! Evaluate(questions)ask)you)to)assess,)make)predictions,)or)explain)complex)ideas.)You’ll)
need$to$justify$a$decision$or$point$of$view.!

●! Create&questions)ask)you)to)produce)new)or)original)work)by)designing,)inventing,)or)
composing.!

!
Bloom’s’Revised’Taxonomy1!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1!Figure’adapted’from’Vanderbilt+University+Center+for+Teaching!is#licensed#under#CC”BY!NC#4.0!

!

3!|”OER$Physical$Geography$Lab$Manual!

Why$bother$with$Bloom’s$taxonomy?$Students$who$understand$what’s$being$asked$of$them$do$
better%in%their%courses.%Most%students%report%that%in%high%school,%they%were%asked%only%to%
remember%or%understand%information.%Transitioning%into%college%coursework%goes%more%
smoothly(if(you(recognize(what’s(being(asked(of(you.!
!
Decoding)a)few)other)question)prompts)will)make)the)lab)go)more)smoothly)for)you:!

Explain(your(response:!
●! This%means%you%should%let%your%instructor%know%the%reasoning%behind%your%answer.%If%

the!question)asks)for)a)certain)number)of)sentences,)be)sure)to)provide)a)thoughtful)
answer’that’meets’that’requirement.!

●! You$don’t$need$to$write$in$complete$sentences.$!
○! For$example,$if$the$question$is$“Why$is$geography$your$favorite$subject?$Explain$

your%response%in%one%to%two%sentences”%you%don’t%need%to%write%“Geography%is%
my#favorite#subject#because…”.#You#can#just#jump#right#into#your#response#to#
save%space.%!

List:!
●! When%you%see%this%as%the%question%prompt,%you%don’t%need%to%write%sentences.%You%can%

just%answer%the%question%using%bullet%points.!
Show%your%work:!
●! This%means%you%should%include%the%variables%that%you%used%for%a%calculation.!
●! For$example,$if$the$question$is$to$“Convert$100$kilometers$into$miles.$Show$your$work”$

then%you%would%need%to%write:%100%÷!0.621371(=(62.1371(miles.(!
●! You$don’t$need$to$show$the$long$division$needed$to$get$the$answer;$just$be$sure$to$

include(the(number(that(you(entered(into(your(calculator(to(find(the(answer.!
●! You$definitely$do$need$to$include$the$units$of$measurement—in#this#case$miles.$!
●! Always’include’the’correct’unit’of’measurement’in’your’responses.!
●! When%your%answer%is%in%decimals,%ask%your%professor%if%they%have%a%preference.%In%the%

example’above,’they’may’prefer’you’to’round’the’answer’to’62’miles'(instead’of’
62.1371’miles).!

●! You$may$indicate$an$estimation$by$using$the$~$symbol.!

Tip$2.$Use$Your$Resources!
There%are%four%types%of%boxes%in%this%lab%manual%to%help%you%navigate%the%course:%!

Pin$It!$Boxes!
Pin$It!$boxes&refer&to&information&that&you&should&mentally&“pin”&for&later.&Remembering&the&
information)included)in)pin)it)boxes)will)help)you)answer)questions)that)come)later)in)the)lab.!
!

!

4!|”OER$Physical$Geography$Lab$Manual!

Think&About&It…Boxes!
Think&About&It…boxes&encourage&you&to&do&just&that,”think”about”the”information”provided”in”
the$box.$The$information$may$require$you$to$relate$physical$geography$to$your$everyday$life,$
form%an%opinion%on%a%controversial%subject,%or%make%connections%across%multiple%topics.!
!

Check&It&Out&Boxes!
Check&It&Out!boxes&provide&supplemental&resources&like&webpages&and&videos&to&help&you&
understand)the)information)or)to)take)you)deeper)into)the)topic.)We)recommend)these)
resources’to’increase’your’understanding’of’physical’geography’topics.’!
!

Guided&Practice&Boxes!
Guided%Practice!boxes&provide&links&to&short&videos&that&demonstrate&tasks&that&physical&
geography)students)often)find)tricky)or)provide)tips)for)navigating)GIS)webpages.)!

If#there#is#a#QR#code,#most#camera#apps#on#phones#can#be#used#to#scan#the#QR#code#in#order%to%
open%the%website.!

For$videos,$you$can$use$the$options$in$youtube$to$speed$up$or$slow$down$the$playback$speed$
(red%arrows%on%diagram%below).%You%can%also%open%the%transcript%to%read%the%information%(blue%
arrows&on&diagram&below).!

!

5!|”OER$Physical$Geography$Lab$Manual!

Table&of!Contents!
Lab$1.$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid! 6!

Lab$2.$Map$Interpretation! 26!

Lab$3.$Earth!Sun$Relationships! 55!

Lab$4.$Earth’s$Energy$Budget! 78!

Lab$5.$Atmospheric$Pressure$and$Wind! 94!

Lab$6.$Atmospheric$Humidity! 127!

Lab$7.$Cyclones! 148!

Lab$8.$Water$Resources! 164!

Lab$9.$Climate$Patterns! 189!

Lab$10.$Climate$Change! 218!

Lab$11.$The$Ocean!Atmosphere*System! 253!

Lab$12.$Introduction$to$Minerals$and$Rocks! 274!

Lab$13.$Plate$Tectonics! 296!

Lab$14.$Seismology! 314!

Lab$15.$Fluvial$Geomorphology! 348!

Lab$16.$Coastal$Geomorphology! 371!

Lab$17.$Aeolian$Geomorphology$and$Desert$Landscapes! 395!

Lab$18.$Glacial$Geomorphology! 414!

Lab$19.$Pedology! 432!

Lab$20.$Biogeography! 457

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6!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!
Learning(Objectives!

●! Use$latitude$and$longitude$to$identify$locations)on)Earth.!
●! Calculate(lengths(of(a(degree(of(longitude(at(different(latitudes.!
●! Convert(between(degrees,(minutes,(and(seconds(and(decimal(latitudes(and(longitudes.!
●! Identify)the)special)lines)of)latitude.!
●! Calculate(solar(time.!
●! Explain(the(Public(Land!Survey’system.!

Introduction!
The$Earth$is$spherical$but$not$quite$a$perfect$circle.$In$fact,$it$is$a$little$wider$in$the$middle$due$
to#its#rotation#and#the#resulting#centrifugal#forces.#By#understanding#that#the#Earth#is#round,#
geographers)can)easily)distinguish’a’specific’location’by’utilizing’a’grid’system,’similar’to’using’
graph&paper.!

Geography*is*about*spatial*understanding,*which*requires*an*accurate*grid*system*to*determine*
absolute)and)relative)location.)Absolute)location!is#the#exact#x!!and$y!!coordinates(on(the(Earth.(
Relative(location!is#the#location#of#something#relative#to#other#entities.#For#example,#when#you#
use$Google$Maps,$you$put$in$an$absolute$location.$But$as$you$start$driving,$the$device$tells$you$
to#turn#right#or#left#relative#to#objects”on”the”ground:””Turn”left”on”exit”Valencia”Blvd””is”relative”
to#the#other#exit#points.#Or#if#you#give#directions#to#your#house,#you#often#use#relative#locations#
to#help#them#understand#how#to#get#to#your#house.2!These%lines%that%allow%us%to%understand%a%
location(are(called(latitudes(and(longitudes.(((!

Lines&of&latitude,”also”known”as”parallels,”are”measured”from”the”center”of”the”Earth.”These”
lines&are&angles&measured&at&the&equator!(0°)%to%the%North%Pole%at%90°N,%or%to%the%South%Pole%at%
90°S.&The&angles&are$measured$as$though$a$protractor$was$placed$in$the$center$of$the$Earth,$
and$we$are$measuring$an$angle$from$the$center$of$the$Earth$to$the$Earth’s$crust.$!

Lines&of&longitude,&otherwise&known&as&meridians,&are&measured&going&east&or&west&of&the&
Prime&Meridian,”which”passes”through”the”Royal”Observatory”in”Greenwich,”England.”The”
reason’the’Prime’Meridian’passes’through’the’Observatory’in’England’is’due’to’an’international’
agreement(of(25(countries(in(1884,(as(technically(the(meridian(is(arbitrary(and(could!have%been%
anywhere(in(the(world.(Two(longitudes((or(meridians),(connected(on(opposite(sides(of(the(
globe,’create’a’great’circle.’A’single’line’of’longitude’does’not’make’a’circle’on’the’globe—it#is#
an#arc#of#a#great#circle.#The#word#meridian#also#implies#that$these$lines$are$not$parallel$but$
instead(intersect(at(both(the(north(and(south(poles.(The!Prime&Meridian&is&the&dividing&
longitude*of*the*eastern*and*western*hemispheres.*The*farthest*one*can*travel*either*east*or*
west%is%180°:%(180°W%+%180°E%=%360°).!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2!Text!by#R.#Adam#Dastrup#(Open%Geography*Education)”is”licensed”under”CC”BY”4.0!

!

7!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

Figure’1.1’provides’an’illustration’of’how’we’can’pinpoint’a’location’on’Earth’using’latitude’and’
longitude.+The+location+marked+with+a+dot+is+40°+north+of+the+equator+and+is+60°+degrees+east+of+
the$Prime$Meridian.$So$this$location$is$at$40°N,$60°E.!

Figure”1.1:”Latitude”and”Longitude”Example.”A”basic”diagram”showing”how”both”latitude”and”longitude”are”
measured(from(the(center(of(the(Earth(towards(the(surface.3!

Both%latitudes%and%longitudes%can%be%identified%as%circles.%This%brings%up%the%topic%of%great%and”
small%circles%(Figure%1.2).%A%great&circle!is#any#circle#that#divides#the#Earth#into#a#circumference#
of#two#equal#halves.#It’s#also#the#largest#circle#that#can#be#drawn#on#a#sphere.#The#line#
connecting(any(points(along(a(great(circle(is(also(the(shortest!distance)between)those)two)
points.(Examples(of(great(circles(include(the(Equator;(all(lines(of(longitude;(the(line(that(divides(
the$Earth$into$day$and$night,$called$the$circle$of$illumination;$and$the$plane$of$the$ecliptic,$
which%divides%the%Earth%into%equal$halves.$Small%circles!are$circles$that$cut$the$Earth$in$two,$but$
not$into$two$equal$halves.4!

!
Figure’1.2:’Great’and’Small’Circles.5!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3!Figure’by’Waverly’Ray’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!
4!Text!by#R.#Adam#Dastrup#(Open%Geography%Education)”is”licensed”under”CC”BY”4.0!
5!Figure!by#Brian&Brondel!is#licensed#under#CC”BY!SA#2.5!!

!

8!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

In#this#lab,#you#will#investigate#a#variety#of#ways#to#understand#the#Earth’s#grid#system,##
determine!the$importance$of$distance$and$differences$in$time,$and$utilize$the$Public$Land$
Survey.!

Part%A.%Latitude%and%Longitude!
The$Earth’s$geographic$grid$is$based$on$the$division$of$a$circle,$which$can$be$observed$as$lines$of$
latitude(or(longitude((Figure(1.3).(!

!
Figure’1.3:’Introductory’Diagram’of’Latitude’and’Longitude.6!!

1.! Refer%to%Figure%1.3.!
a.! Latitude(is(measured(to(the(north(or(south(of(the:!

b.! Longitude*is*measured*to*the*east*or*west*of*the:!

c.! Lines&that&are&drawn&from&north&to&south&(from&the&North&Pole&to&the&South&Pole)&
are$called:$!

d.! Lines&that&are&drawn&from&east&to&west&are&called&(from&the&Prime&Meridian&to&
the$Antimeridian$(180th$Meridian):$!

e.! The$highest$degree$possible$for$a$line$of$latitude#is:!

f.! The$highest$degree$possible$for$a$line$of$longitude$is:$!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
6!Figure’by’Jeremy’Patrich’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

9!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

2.! In#one#to#two#sentences,#describe#the#differences#between#great!and$small!circles.!

3.! On#Figure#1.3,#label#an#example#of#a#great&circle!and$an$example$of$a$small%circle.!

Distance:*The*Length*of*a!Degree!
Because’lines’of’latitude’are’parallel’to’one’another,’the’measurable’distance’between’them,’
from%north%to%south,%remains%relatively%constant.%Due%to%Earth’s%curvature,%one%degree%of%
latitude(is(approximately(68.7(miles(at(the(equator,(while(at(the!poles&one&degree&of&latitude&is&
approximately,69.4,miles.!

As#the#angular#distance#changes#between#the#lines#of#longitude,#the#distance#along#a#line#of#
latitude(will(either(increase(or(decrease.(To(better(understand(this(concept,(use(Table(1.1(
shown&below&to#answer#the#following#questions#about#the#length#of#a#degree#of#longitude#along#
specific’latitudes.'(Hint:’a’statute’mile’is’the’linear’measurement’of’a’mile,’which’is’equal’to’
5,280&feet).!

Table&1.1:&The&Length&of&a&Degree&of&Longitude

!Latitude(North(or”South! Length’of’One’Degree’of’Longitude’at’this’Latitude’
in#Statute#Miles!

0°! 69.171!

10°! 69.128!

20°! 65.026!

30°! 59.956!

40°! 53.063!

50°! 44.552!

60°! 34.674!

70°! 23.729!

80°! 12.051!

90°! 0.000!

4.! Refer%to%Table%1.1.%!
a.! How$does$the$length$of$longitudes$change!as#latitude#is#increased?!

!

10!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

b.! Calculate(the(distance(of(the(Earth(along(the(equator.(Show(your(work.!

c.! Calculate(the(distance(of(the(Earth(along(30°N.(Show(your(work.(!

d.! Calculate(the(distance(of(the(Earth(along(60°S.(Show(your(work.(!

How$would$you$calculate$the$distance)in)miles)between)two)people)on)the)same)line)of)
latitude?)Here)are)the)steps)to)follow:)!

Step%1!
First,’find’the’sum’of’the’total’longitudinal’distance’between’the’points’in’degrees.!

Step%2!
Multiply(that(sum(by(the(statute(miles(per(degree(at(the(shared&line&of&latitude&(refer&to&Table&
1.1).$!

Sometimes(it(is(easier(to(complete(Step(1(by(visualizing(the(degree(distance(between(two(
points’on’the’same’latitude’by’plotting’the’two’points’on’a’graph.’Figure’1.4’provides’an’
example:(if(you(want(to(calculate#the#distance#between#90°W#and#30°E,#you#can#mark#these#on#
the$graph.$Once$you$plot$the$two$locations,$you$are$able$to$calculate$the$total$longitudinal$
distance)between)the)locations.!

!
Figure’1.4:’Example’of’How’to’Calculate’Longitudinal’Distance.7!!

Figure’1.5’provides’a’graph’that’you’can’use’for’the’following’two’questions'(Hint:’this’is’great’
practice(as(you(will(be(using(this(graph(again(later(in(the(lab).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7!Figures(by(Jeremy(Patrich(are(licensed(under&CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

11!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

!
Figure’1.5:’Longitude’Diagram’to’Visualize’Degree’Distance’between’Two’Locations’on’the’Same#Latitude.6!

5.! How$many$miles$are$between$60°N,$30°W$and$60°N,$50°E?$Show$your$work.!
a.! First,’determine’the’number’of’degrees’of’longitude’between’these’two’

locations)(use)Figure)1.5):)!

b.! Second,(refer(to(Table(1.1(and(multiply(your(answer(for(5a(by(the(longitudinal&
distance)at)60°N:!

6.! How$many$miles$are$between$30°S,$60°W$and$30°S,$90°E?$Show$your$work.$!
a.! First,’determine’the’number’of’degrees’of’longitude’between’these’two’

locations)(use)Figure)1.5):)!

b.! Second,(refer(to(Table(1.1(and(multiply(your(answer(for(6a(by(the$longitudinal$
distance)at)30°S:!

Degrees,’Minutes,’and’Seconds!
The$primary$unit$in$which$latitude$and$longitude$are$observed$is$degrees.”As”learned”earlier,”the”
distance)of)these)degrees)can)be)quite)large,)which)is)why)it)is)important)that)the)subdivision#of#
a”degree”be”understood.”There”are”two”formats”for”subdividing”a”degree:”decimal”degrees”and”
degrees!minutes!seconds'(DMS).’!

In#order#to#understand#the#DMS#format,#you#should#know#that#°#is#the#abbreviation#for#degrees,#
’!is#the#abbreviation#for#minutes,#and#”#is#the#abbreviation#for#seconds.#Each#degree#can#be#
divided%into%60%equal%parts%called%a%minute.”Each”minute”can”also”be”divided”into”60″equal”parts”
called&seconds.”This”can”be”noted”as”1°”=”60’”=”3600”.”To”review:”!
�! there%are%60%minutes%in%1%degree.!
�! there%are%60%seconds%in%1%minute.!

Also%note%that%for%DMS,%degrees%are%shown%first,%then%minutes,%then%seconds.%!

7.! Write&the&following&latitude&and&longitudes&in&DMS&and&use&the&correct&abbreviations.&
Hint:&15&degrees,&32&minutes,&and&11&seconds&S&would&be&written&as&15°&32’&11”&S.&
Because’it’has’the’S’designation,’it’is’a’latitude.’!

a.! 5″degrees,”20″minutes,”30″seconds”N:”!

i.! Is#this#a#latitude#or#longitude?!

b.! 122#degrees,#40#seconds,#and#55#minutes#W:#!

i.! Is#this#a#latitude#or#longitude?!

!

12!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

c.! 88″degrees,”55″minutes,”and”12″seconds”S:”!

i.! Is#this#a#latitude#or#longitude?!

8.! Apply%What%You%Learned:%Correct%the%errors%on%the%following%latitudes%and%longitudes.%
Hint:&just%like%with%time,%minutes%and%seconds%cannot%exceed%60.%For%example,%if%there%
are$65’$shown,$you$should$turn$60’$into$1°”and”keep”5’”remaining.”So,”20°”65’”00””N”
would&be&corrected&as&21°&5’&00”&N.&!

a.! 89°$47’$65”$N!

b.! 62°$59’$61”$S!

c.! 118°$67’$51”$E!

Decimal(degrees(are(just(that,(the(decimal(version(of(latitude(and(longitude.(For(example,(you(
know$that$there$are$60$minutes$in$one$degree.$So,$30$minutes$would$be$one!half%of%one%degree.%
One!half%is%the%same%as%0.5.%Therefore,%you%could%identify%a%latitude%as%60°30’%N%or%as%60.5°%N.%!

Let’s&say&you&would&like&to&convert&the&following&location&into&decimal’degrees:’60°’30’’45”’N.’
Only%the%conversion%of%the%minutes%and%seconds%needs%to%occur,%and%this%can%be%done%by%taking%
the$minutes$and$dividing$them$by$60,$and$taking$the$seconds$and$dividing$them$by$3600,$then$
adding&them&together.&(Hint:&1°&=&60’&and#60’#=#3600”).#Let’s#look#at#this#DMS#to#decimal#
conversion)step!by!step:!

Step%1!
Using&the&location&60°&30’&45”&N,&let’s&first&convert&minutes&into&a&decimal&by&dividing&it&by&60.&
For$this$problem,$it$would$be$30/60$=$0.5.!

Step%2!
We#need#to#convert#seconds’into’a’decimal’as’well,’so’divide’the’seconds’by’3600.’For’this’
problem(it(would(be(45/3600(=(0.0125.!

Step%3!
Let’s&put&it&together.&Since&there&was&no&conversion&to&the&degrees,&that&number&stands&alone,&
followed’by’a’decimal’point.’The’decimal’portion%is%the%sum%of%the%conversions%from%steps%1%
and$2.$The$answer$is$60.5125°$N$(60$+$0.5$+$0.0125$=$60.5125).!

Guided&Practice:&DMS$to$Decimal$Degrees!
See#examples#of#how#to#convert#DMS#to#decimal#degrees#with#this%video%from%Scott’s%
Geography*Notebook.”(Video”length”is”4:57).!

!

13!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

9.! Convert(the(following(latitudes(and(longitudes(from(DMS(to(decimal(degrees.(!
a.! 20°$58’$33”$N!

b.! 04°$22’$52”$S!

c.! 118°$35’$51”$E!

Think&About&It…Why$Is!This%Important?!
This%information%is%helpful%in%understanding%locations%on%both%digital%and%paper%mediums.%Most%
paper%maps%use%DMS,%while%most%digital%interfaces%like%Google%Maps%use%decimal%degrees.%!

There%are%many%ways%to%look%up%locations%to%find%their%latitude(and(longitude.(In(the(Pin$It!$box$
below&you&will&find&an&interactive&website&sponsored&by&the&United&States&Geological&Survey&
(USGS)&that&provides&a&global&interactive&map&that&can&help&identify&the&latitude&and&longitude&
of#a#certain#location.#Use”the”QR”code”or”link”below”to”answer”the”following”questions.”(Hint:”all”
three%locations%for%this%activity%are%in%California).%Note%that%negative%(!)”latitudes”are”in”the”
southern)hemisphere)and)negative)(!)”longitudes”are”in”the”western”hemisphere.”For”example,(!
118°$is$the$same$as$118°$W.!

To#convert#decimal#degrees#to#DMS,#multiple#the#decimal#by#60#to#find#the#minutes.#Multiply#
the$remaining$decimal$by$60$to$get$the$seconds.$!

Pin$It!$Finding&a&Latitude&and&Longitude!
Use$this$interactive$Latitude(and(Longitude(Finder!to#help#complete#the#following#questions.#!

10.!What%are%the%latitude%and%longitude%of%Point%Dume%at%Point%Dume%State%Beach…!
a.! …in$Decimal$Degrees?!

b.! …in$Degrees,$Minutes,$and$Seconds?”Show”your”work.!

11.!What%are%the%latitude%and%longitude%of%Mt.%Whitney%in%the%Sierra%Nevada?!
a.! …in$Decimal$Degrees?!

!

14!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

b.! …in$Degrees,$Minutes,$and$Seconds?$Show$your$work.!

Special(Lines(of(Latitude!
There%are%some%special%lines%of%latitude%(Figure%1.6),%which%will”be”discussed”in”another”lab.”You”
should’memorize’these’special’lines’of’latitude.’And,’notice’that’the’word’“Arctic”’has’two’
letter%“c”s%in%it.%Too%many%students%misspell%“Arctic”%as%“Artic”—don’t&let&that&happen&to&you.&
(Also&notice,&there&are&two&letter#“c”s#in#the#word#Antarctic).#!

!
Figure’1.6:’Special’Lines’of’Latitude.8!

12.!Refer%to%Figure%1.6%to%complete%Table%1.2.%Be%sure%to%include%if%the%latitude%is%north%or%
south&of&the&equator.!

Table&1.2:&Special&Lines&of&Latitude!
Latitude(Name! Degrees&of&Latitude&!

The$Equator! !

The$Tropic$of$Cancer! !

The$Tropic$of$Capricorn! !

The$Arctic$Circle! !

The$Antarctic$Circle! !

The$North$Pole! !

The$South$Pole! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
8!Figure!by#University#of#Minnesota#Libraries#is#licensed#under#CC”BY!NC!SA!

!

15!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

13.!Using&Figure&1.6&and&Table&1.2,&sketch!and$label$each$of$these$latitudes$on$the$map$
below&(Figure&1.7).&Be&sure&to&include&the&latitude&name&and&degrees&on&your&labels.!

!
Figure’1.7:’Robinson’Map’Projection.9!

The$Geographic$Grid!
In#this#portion#of#the#lab#you#will#be#applying#previously#learned”content”together”on”a”map.”!

14.!Refer%to%Figure%1.8.!
a.! Label&the&lines&of&latitude&and&longitude&along&the&edges&of&the&map.&Note&that&

they%are%in%30°%increments.%!

!
Figure’1.8:’Global’Robinson’Projection.10!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
9!Figure!by#Bruce&Jones&Design&and&FreeUSandWorldMaps.com!is#licensed#under!CC0#1.0!
10!Figure’by’Jeremy’Patrich’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

16!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

b.! What%are%the%coordinates%for%the%location%labeled%A%(in#North#America)?!

c.! What%are%the%coordinates%for%the%location%labeled%B%(in%the%Indian%Ocean)?!

d.! Draw%a%dot%at%20°S,%45°W%and%label%it%with%a%C.%!

e.! Draw%a%dot%at%60°N,%120°E%and%label%it%with%a%D.!

f.! Draw%a%dot%at%45°S,%15°E%and%label%it%with%a%E.!

g.! Draw%a%dot%at%35°N,&120°W&and&label&it&with&a&F.!

h.! Draw%a%dot%at%70°S,%160°E%and%label%it%with%a%G.!

i.! Draw%a%dot%at%10°N,%30°W%and%label%it%with%a%H.!

j.! Use$Figure$1.9$to$calculate$the$total$distance$in$degrees$between$points$A$and$D.$
Then,&refer&to&Table&1.1&to&determine&the&total&distance&in&miles.&Be&sure&to&show&
your%work.%!

!
Figure’1.9:’Longitude’Diagram’to’Visualize’Degree’Distance’between’Two’Locations$on$the$Same$Latitude.11!!

Part%B.%Earth’s%Time%Zones!
Time%on%Earth%can%be%observed%in%two%different%ways:%either%using%the%Sun%or%utilizing%standard%
time.&Solar&time!uses$the$noon$sun$angles$to$calculate$the$apparent$solar$time$(like$the$sundial$
shown&in!Figure’1.10).’Standard’time!is#the#time#you#are#most#accustomed#to,#as#it#is#the#local#
agreed!upon%time%in%a%region%when%Daylight%Savings%is%not%in%use.%Standard%time%prevents%cities%
and$towns$from$being$divided$by$solar$time$zones.$Standard$time$is$best$observed(as(time(
zones.’!

The$Earth$rotates$eastward,$in$a$prograde$or$counterclockwise$motion$when$viewed$from$the$
North&Star.&The&result&of&this&rotation&makes&meridians&eastward&of&the&noon&meridian&later&in&
time,&while&locations&westward&of&the&noon&meridian%are%earlier%in%time.%Here%is%a%way%to%think%
of#it:#as#your#home#rotates#into#the#morning#sunlight,#you#see#the#sun#rise#(in#the#east).#You#
then%experience%the%noon#meridian,”when”the”sun”is”at”the”highest”point”of”the”celestial”sky.”
When%your%home%finally%rotates%out%of%the%sunlight,%you%see%the%sun%set%(in%the%west).%This%
means&that&longitudes&east&of&your&location&have&already&experienced&your&present&solar&time,&
which%is%why%people%in%Los%Angeles%are%able%to%watch%the%New%York%ball%drop%on%New%Year’s#Eve#
3″hours”before”the”west”coast”experiences”midnight!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
11!Figure’by’Jeremy’Patrich’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

17!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

!
Figure’1.10:’Sundial’Photograph.’A’sundial’is’a’device’that’tells’the’time’of’the’day’by’using’the’apparent’position’

of#the#Sun#in#the#sky.12!!

Check&It&Out!&Interactive*Sundial!
Visit%this%Sundial!for$an$interactive$presentation$of$how$sundials$work!!

For$this$section$of$the$lab,$you$will$investigate$standard$time$and$solar$time.$Each$mean$solar$
day$is$24$hours,$and$the$Earth$rotates’360°’in’one’day.’This’means’that’each’hour,’the’Earth’
rotates’15°’of’longitude.’This’is’the’equivalent’of’1°’of’longitude’every’4’minutes).’To’recap:!
�! 360°%rotation%divided%by%24%hours%in%a%day%equals%15°%of%longitude%per%hour.!
�! 15°$of$longitude$per$hour%divided%by%60%minutes%equals%0.25%degrees%of%longitude%per%

minute.!
�! 0.25%degrees%of%longitude%per%minute%is%equivalent%to%1°%of%longitude%every%4%minutes.!

Pin$It!$Time%and%Earth’s%Rotation!
Be#sure#to#remember#that#a#rotation#of#1#degree#of#longitude#is”worth”4″minutes”of”solar”time.”!

Figure’1.11’is’a’global’time’zone’map,’which’represents’standard’time.’Note’that’eastward’
locations)are)later.)For)example,)when)it)is)1)p.m.)in)Los)Angeles)it)is)4)p.m.)in)New)York)
because’New’York’is’three’time’zones’from%Los%Angeles.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
12!Figure!by#Ines#Zgonc#is#licensed#under#CC”BY!SA#3.0!

!

18!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

!
Figure’1.11:’Time’Zone’Map.13!!

15.!Refer%to%Figure%1.11.%!
a.! How$many$time$zones$are$shown$across$the$map?$Use$Your$Critical$Thinking$

Skills:’Why’would’there’be’this’number’of’time’zones?!

b.! Use$Your$Critical$Thinking$Skills:$The$Earth$rotates$15°$per$hour$so$it$would$make$
sense$that$each$time$zone$spans$a$distance$of$15°.$But$the$time$zone$boundaries$
are$not$vertical$lines$representing$exactly$15°$segments$of$the$planet.$Why$do$
you$think$time!zone%boundaries%are%irregular?%Explain%your%response%in%one%to%
two$sentences.!

Check&It&Out!&Time%Zones!!
Visit%this%interactive%Time%Zone%Map!for$more$information$on$time$zones.!

An#important#variable”related”to”solar”time”is”the”noon#meridian,”which”is”the”meridian”(line”of”
longitude)+that+is+experiencing+the+subsolar+point+where+the+Sun+is+at+its+highest+point+in+the+
sky.%Figure%1.12%provides%a%diagram%showing%the%location%of%the%subsolar(point,”which#is#the#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
13!Figure’by’Waverly’Ray’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!SA#3.0!

!

19!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

location(where(the(Sun’s(rays(reach(the(surface(of(the(Earth(at(a(90°(angle.(A(90°(angle(is(also(
known%as%a%perpendicular%angle.%So,%the%latitude%that%has%the%Sun’s%rays%directly%overhead%is%the%
subsolar(point.(

!
Figure’1.12:’The’Subsolar’Point.’A”basic”diagram”showing”the”location”of”the”subsolar”point”on”Earth’s”surface.”The”

angle&between&the&Sun&and&the&local&horizontal&level&is&exactly&90°&at&the&subsolar&point.14!!

Let’s&say&that&you&are&located&at&the&noon&meridian&and&your&friend&is&located&1°”longitude”east”
of#your#location.#What#is#the#solar#time#at#your#friend’s#location?#Recall#that#1°#is#worth#four#
minutes(of(solar(time.(Also(recall(that(locations(to(the(east(are(later(in(time.(So,(your(friend’s(
location(would(be(12:04(p.m.!

16.!What%would%be%the$solar$time$of$someone$1°$longitude$west$of$the$noon$meridian?$
Show%your%work.!

17.!What%would%be%the%solar%time%of%someone%8°%longitude%east%of%the%noon%meridian?%Show%
your%work.!

18.!Let’s&take&greater&distances&into&consideration.&Assuming&that&you&lived&along!40°W%
longitude,+and+it+was+solar+noon+(subsolar+point),+what+would+be+the+solar+time+at+each+
of#the#following#different#locations#at#the#same#moment#in#time?#(Hint:#first#calculate#
the$total$distance$in$degrees,$then$decide$if$the$location$is$either$westward$or$eastward$
of#your#location.#Lastly,#convert#the#degrees#into#minutes#and#hours,#then#solve).#Be#sure#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
14!Figure’by’Jeremy’Patrich’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

20!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

to#use#Figure#1.13#to#help#you#calculate#the#total#distance#in#degrees#and#show#your#
work.!

a.! 60°W:!

b.! 55°E:!

c.! 80°W:!

d.! 140°E:!

!
Figure’1.13:’Longitude’Diagram’to#Visualize#Degree#Distance#between#Two#Locations#on#the#Same#Latitude.15!!

19.!Assuming(that!you$lived$along$50°E$longitude,$and$it$was$solar$noon$(subsolar$point),$
what%would%be%the%solar%time%at%each%of%the%following%different%locations%at%the%same%
moment&in&time?&Be&sure&to&use&Figure&1.14&to&help&you&calculate&the&total&distance&in&
degrees&and”show”your”work.!

a.! 60°W:!

b.! 55°E:!

c.! 80°W:!

d.! 140°E:!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
15!Figure’by’Jeremy’Patrich’is’licensed’under&CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

21!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

!
Figure’1.14:’Longitude’Diagram’to’Visualize’Degree’Distance’between’Two’Locations’on’the’Same’Latitude.16!!

20.!Lastly,(let’s(assume(that(you(are(lost(at(sea(on(an(old(ship.(It(is(possible(to(determine(
your%longitude%if#you#know#your#solar#time#and#the#time#and#longitude#of#another#
location.)As)an)example,)assume)the)last)port)you)were)in)was)near)Greenwich,)England)
(the%Prime%Meridian),%and%you%set%your%pocket%watch%before%departure.%Assuming%that%it%
is#solar#noon#at#your%location%on%the%lost%ship,%what%is%your%longitude%if%the%time%at%the%
Prime&Meridian&is&the&following?&(Hint:&first&decide&if&your&ship&is&either&westward&or&
eastward(of(the(known(location,(then(calculate(the(total(difference(in(time(between(the(
two$locations,)lastly)convert)the)time)into)degrees)and)solve).)Be)sure)to)use)Figure)1.15)
to#help#you#calculate#the#total#distance#in#degrees#and#show#your#work.!

a.! 3:00$p.m.$at$Prime$Meridian:!

b.! 6:00$p.m.$at$Prime$Meridian:!

c.! 1:00$a.m.$at$Prime$Meridian:!

d.! 2:30%p.m.%at!Prime&Meridian:!

!
Figure’1.15:’Longitude’Diagram’to’Visualize’Degree’Distance’between’Two’Locations’on’the’Same’Latitude.11!

21.!In#your#own#words,#explain#the#difference#between#solar#time#and#standard#time#in#one#
to#two#sentences.!

Part%C.%The%Public%Land%Survey$!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
16!Figures(by(Jeremy(Patrich(are(licensed(under(CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

22!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

Another(way(to(divide(up(regions(is(by(using(the(Public’Land’Survey!(PLS).’The’combination’of’a’
topographical+map+and+this+system+can+be+used+to+locate+features+within+a+few+acres+and+is+a+
primary’means’of’subdividing’tracts’of’land’for’sale.’The’organization’of’the’township!section(
system&is&based&on&the&definition&of&baselines&and&principal&meridians.&The&position&of&a&
baseline(and(meridian(within(a(region(may(or(may(not(coincide(with(latitude(and(longitude.(This(
system&is&still&used&today&in&some&variation’in’most’states’except’for’the’original’thirteen’
colonies(as(they(predate(this(system.(Although(antiquated,(it(is(still(observed(in(the(urban(
designs’of’our’landscapes,’and’is’crucial’for’identifying’large’acreage’parcels’of’land’in’
undeveloped)areas.#!

Check&It&Out!&Baselines(and(Meridians!
Visit%this%link%of%Baselines(and(Meridians!to#see#a#map#of#Public#Land#Survey#across#the#United#
States.!

Townships!are$square$areas$of$6$miles$on$a$side$(36$square$miles),$bordered$on$the$east$and$
west%by%range%lines%and%on%the%north%and%south%by%township%lines.%Each%township%is%subdivided%
into%36%sections%of%1%square%mile%(Figure%1.16).!

Sections)are)broken&down&even&smaller&into&quadrants.&These&quadrants&can&be&divided&into&
four%parts,%which%results%in%¼%mile%increments,%otherwise%known%as%40%acres.!

Hint:&another&way&to&explain&this&system&would&be&similar&to!explaining)to)someone)where)you)
live.&As&an&example,&you&could&be&specific&with&an&address&(quadrants)&or&you&can&provide&the&
City%(sections)%or%you%can%provide%the%region%of%the%state%(Township%and%Range).%!

Guided&Practice:&The$Public$Land$Survey!
Learn&how$to$understand$township$and$range$with$this%video!from%Professor%Jeremy%Patrich.%
(Video’length’is’10:08).!

!

23!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

!
Figure’1.16:’The’Public’Land’Survey.17!!!

Observing*this*three!part%map%below,%it%is%important%to%note%that%you%can%follow%each%letter%
across&all&three&parts.&This&is&done&so&cartographers&do&not&have&to&keep&making&new&maps.&
Using&the&map&below&(Figure&1.17),&use&the&Public&Land&Survey&to&identify&the&location&of&each&
letter.&(Hint:&Letter&J&has&been&completed)for)you)as)an)example).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
17!Figure’by’Jeremy’Patrich’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!

!

24!|”Lab$1:$Earth’s$Geographic$Grid!

!
Figure’1.17:’The’Public’Land’Survey’Activity.18!

Example,)using)J:)))NW)))¼,)of)the)SW)))¼,)Section)#)8))),)Township)T4N))),)Range)R3W)))

22.!A:#############¼,#of#the###########¼,#Section############,#Township###########,#Range”””””””””””!

23.!B:##############¼,#of#the###########¼,#Section############,#Township###########,#Range####!

24.!C:##############¼,#of#the###########¼,#Section############,#Township###########,#Range####!

25.!D:#############¼,#of#the###########¼,#Section############,#Township”””””’,’Range!

Part%D.%Wrap!Up!
Consult(with(your(geography(lab(instructor(to(find(out(which(of(the(following(wrap!up#questions#
you$should$complete.$Attach$additional$pages$to$answer$the$questions$as$needed.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
18!Figure’by’Jeremy’Patrich’is’licensed’under’CC”BY!NC!SA#4.0!