You will select a large organization, profit or nonprofit, that has recently gone through significant change. Choose an organization that you can find substantial written material documenting the change effort. Analyze the organization on the basis of the readings covered in this course and write a 5–6 page paper discussing the change effort. APA Format!
I expect you to have a minimum of 5 citations from the textbook. You are expected to utilize materials from the course and search for other sources of materials. (3 chapters attached to cite from)
Requirements
The paper should follow this outline:
- Introduction: Describe the situation, organization, and context for the change?
- Analysis: Analyze the approach taken by the change agent(s), and address the following:
the image of the type of change held by the change agent,
the “culture” of the setting that is changing and the role culture played in the change,
the extent to which the (envisioned and actual) change was first or second order vs. adaptive or transformational,
the method(s) for implementing change,
the vision for the change, and
how the change was communicated - Overall Evaluation: Evaluate the quality of the change agent’s work based on class readings.
- Recommendations: Include recommendations suggesting what steps could have been taken to increase the success of the project.
Grading
Criteria for grading the paper will include:
- Use of materials from the course. I expect that your paper will make a number of references to class readings in addition to other source material.
- The use of supporting data. If you make an assertion such as “Morale at the company was at an all-time low,” on what do you base this? Or, if you suggest, “This project has had an enormous impact on customer satisfaction,” how do you know this to be true? While it is acceptable to occasionally insert some subjectivity into the analysis – be clear to identify what is a subjective opinion and what is based on more objective data sources.
- The quality of your conclusions and recommendations.
Chapte
r
Change Managem
ent
Perspective
s
Learning objectives
By
the
endofthischapteryoushou-dbeab-e
to
:
医さ団園 Underst
and
andidentifythefactorsthatcancausechangetofaiー,
E雨 四墨 塾 Assessthestrengthsandiimitationsofcheck1istsformana9ing
chang
e
effectively
.
「LQ--蟹副 Evaluatetheadvantagesofstage modelsofchange managennent.
匝IE至重軍司 Assessthetheoreticalandpracticaーva-ueoftheprocessPerspectiveonchange.
「Lof輔園Understandandapp-ycontingencyapproachestochange management.
”了hequest′on′sがrw力os
go′ngro/erme/′r’swh
o
′sgomgtostopme.
”
AynRand,writerandphilosopher
319
320
ChaPterlO
C/7の堰e崩超′mgの??emβのPecr和郎
optionsfor Managing
Change
Chnngt,1~ Dim,ptiv,二,一Liv(, with.t - - 一
-
…
soatoppotyoftheorgazaon.This
is
not
someth
ing
that
c
a
n
be
third
orfourth
down
in
t
he
CEO’s
list
ofthings
he
or
she
must
do.VVe
view
those
characteristics
as
beingnecessaryco‐travellerstodelivering
a
truetransformationofthecompany・(Bucyetal,,
2017a,pp.2-3).
Atruetransformationisdisruptive.ltdoesn’t
justwork withtheexisting9overnance,
the
existingprocesses,theexistingbudgetingcy-
cle,theexistingwaysofdoingthings.ltisgo-
ing
to
disrupt, And
it’s
going
to create
challengeandtensionandfricti
on
intheor-
ganization.Because
it
is
so disruptive,it’s
TheperspeCtivesdiscussedinthischapterinc1udechange managementChecMists,
stage
models,andprocessandcontingencytheories,They o掻eradvice on managing
change,
butmakeno mentionofthepersonalstylesandpre危rencesofindividualchange manag-
ers.Letusfirst6‐1lthisgap,
The Directorand Navigatorlmages ofChange Management
1iwoofourskimagesofchange managementareparticularlyrelevanttothe
approaches
exploredinthischapter.TheαZreczorimageunderpinsthechangemanagementapproaches
associatedwiththeworkoflargeconsultingcompanies,andalsoofacademicswho work
aschangeconsultantsinthisfield,Those who adoptsuch approachestake astrategi
c
view,adopting a pragmatic, managerialistapproachto
achievinglasting
organizational
change.
The
chec*山sts
and
stage modelsthat we
explore 魚1lintot
his
category. They
suggestthatchangecanbe managedandcontrolledinapredictable manneraslongas
the
correctsteps
aretaken,in moreorlessthecorrectsequence, However,giventhe
numberofdi錐erentsetsofrecipesand丘ameworksthatareavailable,itisnotalways
cle
ar
whichtoadopt,orthecriteriaon whichthechoiceshouldbemade.
Contingencyframeworkscanalsobeseenasconsistentwiththeメケecわri血age.Rather
thanclaimingtohavediscovered“theonebestapproach,
”however,these丘ameworksargue
that“itdepends“on anumberofcontext 魚ctors,such asthescaleand urgency
ofthe
proposedchanges.Fore×ample,oneofthesecont無gencyframeworks,thechangekaleido-
scope(BalogunetaL,2016)doesnoto爺erPrescriptiveadviceonhowtoimplementchange
inparticularcontexts,That丘ameworkinsteadhighlights免rthechange managerthecon-
textualissuesto consider whenreaching aninあrmedjudgmentwithregardto change
implementationdesignoptions,Thisapproachisalsoconsistenttosomeextentwiththe
′7αyZg防げimageofchange management,Changecanbecontrolledinpart,butexternal
魚ctors(contextualenablersandconstraints,competinginterests)can generateemergent
andunintendedoutcomesoverwhichthechange managerhaslittleornoinfluence.
The
idea
ofestablishing
“fit”
between
change
implementation
and organizational
contextisnotconsistentwithaprocessualview ofchange.Processtheoriesseechange
unあldingovertimeina messyanditerative wayandthusrelyontheimageofchange
manageras“の’Zgのor.Here,thechangeoutcomesareshapedbyacombinationoffactors
ChaPterlO
C方の増ど崩‘”〃”ge′77e用弁eなlpeメルes
321
includingthepast,present,andfuturecの7rexzinwhichtheorganizationfunctions;the
sz心“α打ceofthechange;theimP1ementation〃mcesg刀o/mcq/わeんαvzor,insideand out-
side
the
organization; and
the
interactions
between
these
魚ctors (Dawson
and
んDdriopoulos,2017),Theroleofthechange managerisnotto direct,buttoidenti尊
options,accumulateresources, monitor progress,andto′mwgqre
a paththroughthe
complexity.
ltistherefbreimportantforchange managerstobeawareof,and perhapson m
any
occasionsto putto
one
side,theirpre発rredimage
ofchange management.ltis
also
importantthatmanagersarecomあrtablewiththeiractions,withregardtobothpersonal
capabilityandhowactionsareperceivedtofitwiththecontext,However,implementation
designdecisionsshouldideallybemoreheavilyinfluencedbythecontext魚ctorsthatwe
exploreinthischapterthanbypersonalconsiderations.
圏園圏麗 W′hy Change Fai
ls
ルリノの?ew加 加瀞?仰げ mαdeqmな放たe 加s“everかたdのりノ効力7g″gMノ. (A1bertEinstein)
方房雄お『庇方rsrsreprollノqrds蔵/超re. (Homersimpson)
lnthischapter,weexploreapproachestoimLP1ementingorganizationalchangeeがectively,
drawing on
arangeofchange management,processual,and
contingency perspectives.
First,however,wewillexplorewhychange態ils,lfweunderstandthecommon mistakes,
perhapswecanavoidthem.
Askagroup ofmanagerstoreflectontheirexperienceandtoidentifywhattodoto
makeorganizationalchange 魚il.Theirresponseusuallycomesintwostages.First,they
laugh.Second,theygeneratewithoutdifficultyalistofpracticalactionstoguaranteethat
aninitiativewillnotbesuccessful.Tablelo,lillustratesthetypicalresultsofsuchadis‐
cussion,Thissuggeststwoconclusions.First,ensurmgthatchange魚ils-shouldonewish
todothat-isnotdi甘icult.Therearemanytoolsatone’sdisposal,involvingacombination
ofactionsandinactions.Second,ifwehavesuch agoodunderstandingofwhatcan
go
wrong,thengettingitrightshouldbeeasy.justturnthenegativesaround:clearvlslon,
TABLEIO.I
Howtoハ4ake
chooSethemoStexpenSiVewaytodoit
CommitmentWith0utーeaderShipSupp0rt
ChangeFail:A
Demotivatethegro
up
Donotrecognizethepowerofthetea
m
ハ4anagement
Distortthevision
Divertattentionandresources
View
Don,tbuyintothe
process
Don’tfollowtheprocess
トlighlightpastfailures
トlighlightthenegatives
Lackofhonesty
Nocommunication
Politicalgames
Setupsilos
下eamupwith
others
下oomanypoliciesandprocedures
322
ChaPte「1O
C/m′7ge脳久のmgeme′7rReな刀ecr′1’es
commitmentandleadershipsupport,honestco]mmLunication,simplicity,breakdoWnthe
snos,highlightsuccessesand positives.-andsoon.Sadly,whilethisapproachishelpful,
“
gettingitright”isnotthiseasy.
From hisresearchintooverloocompanies(mostbutnotanAmerican),John Kotter
(2007;2012a)arguesthattransあrmationalchangeso貴en 魚ilbecauseofthe mistakesthat
areidentifiedintable
lo,2.Understandingwhatnotto do, Kotterturnsthese mistakes
intoapositivemodelofsuccessfultransit)rmation,Thatinvolvescarefulplanning,Worldng
throughtheseissuesmoreorlessinsequence,andnotmissingorrushinganyofthem-
whichtakestime,However,giventherapidpaceofcontelnporarychange, many organl-
zationsperhapstrytotaketoo manyshortcuts,toputchangeinplacequic]=ly,andgetit
wrongasaresult.
亙thoughit maybean oversimplificationtoclaim thatsuccessfulchangejustmeans
avoidingthese mistakes,theyshouldbeavoidednevertheless,ltisalsoimportanttorec‐
ognizethatthereare manyofthese mistakes,andthatinanyparticularsetting,several
ofthose 魚ctors maybecombiningtoensurethatthechangeprogram 魚ils.Successor
魚ilurecanrarelybeexplainedwithre定rencetoonlyasingle 魚ctor,VVhatarethecosts
involvedinavoidingthese mistakes?AI1mostalltheremediesarecost‐neutral,involving
changesinleadership
and management
style
andin organizationalpolicies
and proce-
dures,lnshort,whileensuringthatchangewill魚ilinvolveslittleornocost,mostofthe
actionsrequiredto”
getitright
’’areaISO 丘ee.
TABLEIO.2
W〆hyT1ans節rmationE掻ortsFail☆
Mistakes
NatureandRemedy
~ourgency
ーfemployeesdon’tseetheneed,thentheyWillnotbemotivatedtoChange;
【nへ【ヘバ^ n〔(h十
hh”ぐ+
hr′、つ+‘[、q
o′r、hごと
r、f
=r〔とュn′.・′
tocelebrate;managementshouーdcreateandrewardshort‐term wlns.
Premoru「ev′crory
Thejobisnotdonewhenimprovementsappear;itisamistaketo“declare
ChaPte「1O
Cメ7の増eル超′70gの77の7rRersPecr印弧
323
園園園圃 Change by Checklist
勤ereなαcerrq!′?〆効け′′7欲の7gどの’の?豹α!gねZzbe方om 彰〆lollりなeノαs/ 卿ve珍zmdかdye/-
/′′?gZ〃”srqge‐の僻ん ”な 堺renqcom脆ァrro靴扉o′7es脚立『/m mメムe虜“なed/′?′?ewp超ces,
(Washingtonlrving)
Thelandscapeofpracticaladviceあrthechange managerisdominatedbysimplecheck
lists.Thesehavealsobeendescribedas“〃-steprecipes,
” where〃isthenumberofitems
onthelist,Thisapproachisopentothecriticismthatitoversim‐plifiesacomplexprocess.
Howeversimplified,itisprobablyaccurateto claim that,in mostcases,ifthechange
managerdoesnotあ11OW mostoftheadviceinthesechecklists,thenthechange
program
couldrunintotrouble.
Checklistapproachesto change managementassumethattheprocessislogicaland
linearandcantherelt)rebecontrolledbyplanningandthen長)1lowingthecorrectset
of
steps.This“rationallinear” modelofchangehasbeen widelycriticized,butitremains
popularwithpro花ssionalbodiesand managementconsultancies.Thisisprobablybecause
thesechecklistsorrecipescodifywhatisusuallya messyanditerativeprocessandthus
oぼerthebusy change
manager
straightfbrward
advice
on whatto
dotoimprovethe
chancesofsuccess.lnthissection,wewillconsiderthreetypicalchecklistsandconsider
howthechangeagentshouldchoosebetweenthem.
The Boston Consultin9 Group
’s D-CE ModeI
D【anagementconsultingcompaniestyPicallydeveloptheirownrecipes,o仕en withamem-
orableacronym.TheDICE modeldevelopedbytheBoston ConsultingGroup,食)rexam-
pie,identifies化’ur 魚ctorsthatdetermine whethera changeprogram will“flyordie”:
Duration,lntegrity,Commitment,andE鎖ort.These化’ur魚ctorsareoutHnedintableio.3
(Sirkinetai.,2005).
TABLEIO.3
pーcEFactor
Meaning
DICE÷“/aIY
our
Changepr。gram
DUro”on
Thedurationoftimeuntiltheprogramiscompletedifithasashortlife
F・yorDie?
span;ifnotshort,theamountoftimebetweenrevjewsormilestones
′〃fegr#y
Theprojectteam’sperformanceintegrity;jtsabiーitytocompletethe
initiativeontime,whichdependsonmembers’sk旧sre-ativetothe
projecrsre
quirements
commたmen士
Thecommitmentdisplayedbytopmanagementandemployeeswho
areaffected
E航or『
TheeffortrequiredthatisoVerandabovetheusualdemandson
employees
Program
oftimeshort,thea
team’sper
time,whic
quirements
Theprojectt
initiativeont
projecでsreq
BasedonsirkinetaL,200
5
Changemanagersareadvisedtocalculatescoresあreachofthe DICE 魚ctors.Forexam-
Pie,DurationscoreshighlyiftheoveranPrqect前rilescaleisshortwithfrequentreviews
but
getsalowscoreifreviewsaremorethaneightmonthsaPart.lntegrityscoreswellifaskiUed
and‐motivatedPrQiectteam hasacaPableandresPectedleaderandscoresbadlyifthose
324
ChaPterlO
C′70′7ge脳超′mgie′77gmReなz7此方-’es
発aturesareabsent.Adethosewhow皿 beal胃ectedbythechangeenthusiasticandsuPPortive
(high Co凹面tmentscore),oraretheyconcerned andobstructive(lowscore)?Doesthe
prqiectrequireasmaUamountofadditionalwork(highE餓ortscore)oralotofeXtrae掻ort
ontopofanalleadyheavyload(lowscore)?ThecombinedscoresreveaIWhetherapr ect
ismtheレvZ′7Zの7色thetノげび Zの7色 orthelyoezの7e.Knowing wherethe weaknessesare,
managementcandeveloPanactionP1anto movethechange中tothew/′7zの2e,
ReducingthetasktoFourdimens1onsprovidesreassurancethat,inspiteoftheuncer-
taintiesand untidiness,changecanbecontro11ed and工エーanagede”コective1yina moreor
lesslogicalandpredictablemanner.AIIS0,havingtohandlesuchasmallnumberofissues
appearstolessenthescaleofthechallengethatthechange managerhasto 魚ce.Success
appearstobeprettymuchguaranteed,
Prosci’s ADKAR ModeI
TheADKARchangemodelwasdevelopedbytheconsultingcompanyProsci(Hiatt,2004;
2006;Hiattand Creasey,2012),Theacronym isbased onfiveelements: Awareness,
Desire,Knowledge,Ability,and Rein貴)rcement,公4anycommentatorshaveobservedthat
organizationschangebychangingonepersonatatime(e,g,,MCFarlandand Goldsworthy,
2013).Followingthatpremise,the あcusoftheADKAR‐modellieswiththeカメZVZメヱ臓声
who Willbeinvolvedinanda]mectedbychange,ln other words,thechange manageris
advisedtoconcentrateonindividuaIAwareness,individuaIDesire,individuaIKnowledge,
individuaIAbility,andtheextentto which Rein食)rcementis meaningfulandrelevantto
theindividual,TheA[軽く一ARelementsaredescribedmtable
lo.4,
TABLEIO.4
ADKARE-ements
Factorslnfluencing
ChangeSuccess
ADKAR‐Five
E1e】mーents
Aworeness
lndividualviewsofthecurrentStateandProblems
.nnuencing
oftheneedforchange
Credibi-ityofthoseSendingtheawarenessmessages
ChangeSuccess
Circulationofrumorsormis
infor
mation
Contestabilityofthereasonsforchange
behavior
S
Timeavailabletodeveloptherequiredski”s
Availabiーityofresourcestosupportskills
development
Re′〃fi。rcemenr
MeaningfulandspecifictothePersonaffected
tosustainthechange
LinkWithdemonstrableProgress
NonegativeconsequenCes
Accountabilitysystemtocontinual-yreinforcethechange
Source:Hiatt,J.2006.
ChaPte「1O
Cメ7α′7ge崩‘”′mgの77emReなPecrかes
325
ASWith DICE,thechange managercan useAJ)KAR asadiagn○stican‐d p1anning
tool,toidentifyareasofPotentialresistance,todeveloPcommunicationandsta茸 devel-
oPment
strategies,andto
strengthen
changeimP1ementation byaddressinggaps
and
problems,PayingcloseattentiontoindividuaIPerceptions,strengths,and weaknessesis
astrengthoftheAL1)※]ARapproach,Particu1ar1ywithregardtogeneratingenthusiasm,
overcom・ngresistance,and
develoPing new skills.lnaddition,thisis
one
ofthe 免w
modelsthatexplicitlyaddresstheissueofsustainingchange(which wewillexplorein
chaPterll).However,ADK‐AR payslessattentiontothenatureandilrlplicationsofthe
widerorganizationalcontextandtheProcessofchange一触ctorsthatareemPhasizedin
other models.
Stouten’s Evidence‐Based Approach
Notingthatthe魚ilurerateofplannedorganizationalchangeishigh,Stoutenetal.(2018)
suggestthatmanagersshouldnotusetheavailableresearchevidence when ma]bLngdeci-
sionsaboutproposedchangesto organizationalpractices.Theyarguethatan evidence‐
basedapproachismoreapProPriate.Theirreview ofthatevidence,父)cusingonpractical
guidelinesandunderlyingtheory,identifies
l0stePsthatthechange managerisadvised
to賃)1loW:
1, Diagnosis(1):Gatherthe魚ctsconcerningthenatureoftheProblem.
2, Diagnosis(2):Assessthe
organization
’sreadiness あrchange.
3.ldenti尊solutions:lmplementevidencebasedchangeinterventions.
4. DeveloPe爺ectivechangeleadershipthroughouttheorganization.
5. Developandco]mmーunicateaco]mPellingchangev・s1on.
6・\yorkwithsocialnetworks,andusetheirinfluence,
7. UseenablingPractices一goalsetting,learning,employeeParticipation,andtransitional
structures-tosuPportimP1ementationthatshouldalsobe魚irandjust.
8.Encouragesmall‐scaleinitiativesandexPerimentation,toallowlocaladjustmentsto
broadchangeplans,
9. AssesschangeProgressandoutcomesovertime.
10.1nstitutionalizethechangetosustainitse”ヨectiveness.
Thisgeneraladvicehastobeadaptedtospecificlocalcircumstances,buttheresearch‐
ersarguethatanaPproachthat貸)1lowstheevidencecarefullyismorelikelytosucceed
than onethatdoesnot.ltisinterestingtonotethatthisapproachisbroadlyconsistent
withotherguidelines,suchas,危rexample,thosefrom Kotter(2012a):Establishtheneed
andreadinessForchange,communicateacompellingvls1on,assessProgress,institution‐
alizeorembedthechange.
Checkingthe Check1ists
Thereare
many
“howto”checklistsincirculation.Howshouldthechangemanagerchoose
betweenthem?Theircontentsaresimilar,buttheyeachhighlightdifierentissues.DICE
(Sirkinetal.,2005)asksthechange managertocalculatescores 危rthechangetiming,
team,commitment,and demandsonsta茸.ADKAR(Hiatt,2006)危cusesonindividual
32
6
CI1aPterlO
C′74′7ge脳α′70geme′7『H窃即ec輸’es
perceptions,motivations,andcapabilities.Stoutenetal,(2018)wantthechange manager
to貴)1loWtheresearchevidenceaCross
losteps,
oneresponseconcerns”云it“;someaPProachesaremoreapproPriatethanotherstoa
givencontext.Thisdependsonthesizeoftheorganization,thenature,scaleandurgency
ofchange,theproblemsto be
solved,numbers
a畳当ected,the
organization
’s historyof
change,andso on,lfchangetimingand demands
on sta甘 arekeyconcerns,andthe
organizationalculturehasapre舵rence貴)rquantifiedmethods,theDICE modelmaybe
appropriate,TheA”)KuRapproach mayapplyinsituationsWhereindividualconcerns
areseenascentraltothesuccessofchange,Theevidence‐basedapproachofStoutenetal,
(2018) maycontributetothecredibilityofthechange managerinorganizationalcultures
Wherechangesthemselveshavetobeseentobesupportedbyevidence,suchasengineer‐
ing,researchanddevelopment,andhealthcaresettings,
ltmayseem obvioustoarguethatchangesneed
to
be
adequately
resourced,
With
funds,people,
andotherappropriatesupport,iftheyareto
have
any
chance
of
success,Research
suggests
the
opposite,
Weidne「etal.(2017)wereinterestedinthesup-
portprovidedfororganizationalchanges,asinade-
quate 「esourcing
i
s
often
used
to
e×plain
や「
excuse}fai-ure.Confidenceinandcommitmentto
change,and
experimentation
with
different
op-
tions,canbeencouragedbyhavingaccesstothe
rightfinancial
and
hum
an
resources.Experience
shows,however,thatthesuccessofmajor
changes
isnotguaranteedevenwheresignificantresources
aremadeavailable,
Theresearchersstudiedlinksbetweenavailable
resourcesandthesuccessofchangeinthreehealth-
caresettingsintheUKNationa-HeaーthService(NHS),
These
involved
hospital
services,communitycare,
andmenta-healthservices.TheNHShadbeen
under
pressuretocutcosts,whilemaintainingquaーity,ata
time
when
demand
for
hea1thca「e
was
r-s1ng.
Changestothehospital
and
communityc
are
prac‐
ticeswe「efelttobestrate9icpriorities,sotheywe「e
wellresourced,andtheirchangeagentshada-otof
freedom,-ncontrast,mentalhealthse~iceswe「enot
seen
as
a
priority,and
budget
and
administrative
supportresourcesfortheseserviceswerecut.The
researchers
gathered
information
overfouryears,
usingacombinationofobservation,inte~iews,anda
widerangeoforganizationaldocuments,
W′hich
servicesexperiencedthe
mostprofound
changes,andwhy?Weidneretal.(2017)found:
・
Despitebeingverywe--resourced,hospitaーand
communitycareserviceswerelargelyunchanged
overtheperiodofthisstudy.
・
Mentalhealthserviceschangedandimprovedto
suchadegreethattheybecamealocalandna-
tionalshowpieceforstrategicchangeinitiatives.
・
Thoseworkingin mental
healthbenefittedfrom
thelackofinterestinwhattheyweredoing,as
thisa=owedthemtoimplementchangesquick-y,
without
becoming
involved
inlengthy
debates
andnegotiations.
Theinitiativesthatwereprioritizedand we-l
re‐
sourced
attractedtheattention
ofa wide
rangeof
powerful
stakeho1ders.As
a
result,thesechanges
came
under
more
intense
scrutinyand
challenge.
Changeagentshadtodevotemoretimetomanag-
ingtheneedsanddemandsofa‘ltheinterestedpar-
ties
and
spent
less
time
imp1ementing
theactual
changes.
Contraryto
mostchange
managementadvice,
this
evidence
suggeststhat,ifyou wanta
depart‐
ment,service,or
unitto
make
dramatic
changes,
considergivingitinadequateresourcestodoso.
ChaPterlO
C
t乃の7geル仏α′7αge′77g川野ぞ裕Pedzves
327
Aぬ
other
answerto “how to
choose?” m‐aysimply be-doesit matter? As
long
as
adviceinthisfbrmisused asastructuredstarting point,thenthedetailsandissues
thatarerelevanttoaspecificchangeinaparticularorganizationshouldemerge
inthe
discussion andtheplanning.Afinalresponseis-whychoose? W′hynotworkthrough
more
than
one
ofthese
approaches
and
assess
their value
in
use?
Two
or
more
approachesappliedtothesamechangeprogram maysuggestsimilar-orwidelydiぼer-
ent-implications云orpractice,Thesimilaritiescanbereassuring.Thedifferencesmay
trigger
further
insights
and
investigation
and
contribute
to better
implementation
planning.
Thesemodelsare”high-level“guides,notdetailed“bestpractice
“road maps.Theyare
usefulaslong astheyareusedinthatway.Unlikearecipeinyourkitchen cookbook,
theseguidelineslisttheingredients withoutexplaininghowto makethedish.Youhave
toworkthatoutあryourself.Thiscanbe丑ustratingforchangemanagersseekingconcrete
adviceon“whatworksand whatdoesn’t,
”Checklistsjustidenti尊 態ctorsthatneedtobe
addressed;thechallengeisto constructachangeimplementation processthatfitsthe
organizationalconte×t.Thatisthehardpart. Changeflom thisperspectiveistosome
extentatechnicalexercise,understandingtheissuestoconsider,butalsorequiresablend
oflocalblowledge,in恥rmedjudgment,andcreative”aロ.
rL万国副 Stage Mod
els
豹e″z/‘羽/e.占泥ryo′7e/oyes〃?叩か力7gあeg粥川′?≧gsα′?メカαP即ノ釧{霞“gsゴ”Sルs”左g′”/ddをs豹の
粥vo/ye 如rdwo戒, (Kanter,2009)
Changecanbeseen,notjustasachecklistofto‐dos,butasaseriesofstagesunあlding
overtime,fromillitiation,throughimplementation,to conclusion.Thisstage
approach
doesnotnecessarilydisquali尊thechecklistsandrecipes.However,stage modelssuggest
theactionsthatthechange managerisadvisedtotakewillvaryovertheimplementation
cycle.ThestepsnecessarytoinitiatechangethuswillbediHヨerentfrom thoserequired
duringtheinnーplementationstage,anddi航erentactionsagainwiubenecessarytoconclude
andsustainthechange.Stage modelscanthuscomplementthechecklistapproach
by
introducingthistemporaldin[lenslon.
Lewin’s Three‐Stage Model
oneofthebest‐known modelsofchange wasdevelopedby KurtLewin(1951),who
argued食)rtheneedtoz殉膨ezethecurrentstateofaffairs,to′“。vetoadesired
new
state,andthentor弓かeezeandstabilizethosechanges(Burnes,2020;Cummingset
al.,2016):
Changeattitudesbyma]bLngpeople発eluncom長)rtableaboutthe
way
thingsarebecausetheycouldbeimproved,andsoestablishthemotive
tochange・
328
ChaPterlO
C’7q′7ge崩敵′7αge′77g′7rHersPecr′yes
lmplementthechangeto mーovetothedesirednewstate.
EmbedorinstitutionaUzethenew behaviors,topreventPeoP1e登om
dri宣ingbacktopreviouswaysofdoingthings.
Eachofthesestages makesdiがerentdelmlandSonthechange manager.First,convincing
those who willbeinvolvedoftheneedtochange.Second,puttingthechangeinplace.
Third,redesigningroles,systems,andprocedurestodiscourageareturntopastpractice.
oneimportant。bservati。nofthism。delisthat,ifpeoplearehappywiththewaythings
are,theywillbereluctanttochange,Thechange manager
’sfirsttaskinthisapproach,
therejR)re,istomakepeopleunhappy,Butthisisa“
positivedissatis魚ction,
”whichencour-
agespeopletobelievethat“wecandobetter,
”
Findonybu方ube,
“Unfreezin9ChangeasthreestePs;RethinkingKurtl‐eWin’slegacyforchangemanagement”
(2019,7:36minutes).
Lewm’ssecondstage-mo光一caninvoke Kanter’slaW(seethebox”Kanter’sLaW),Which
sEwsthatchange。貴enlooksm(eafa江ureinthemiddle,Sc土田eiderandGoldwasser(1998),
whoP1otted
“theclassicchangecurve,
”capl旗redthislaw(seeFi罫jrelo.1).加themiddleof
thecurveSitsthe”vaneyofdespa立,
“Those whoarea爺ectedstarttorealizethatthiscould
meanlossandpa無 恥rthem.Scr血eiderandGoldwasser(1998,p,42)arg瓢lethatthisispr。ID
ablymevitable,butthatitisusellilt。beawareofthisandto weakentheiIPpactifpossible:
A1eaderofchangemustanticipateemployees’reactions,anotherkey魚ctorintheProcess,
Asshown[Figurelo.1],thesereactionsoccuralonga”changecurve,
“ThebluelinereP‐
resentswhatis,unあrtunately,typical,Unrealisticallyhighexpectationsattheoutsetofa
programmeleadtoarelativelydeep‘‘valleyofdespair”whenchangedoes口tcomeas
quicklyoreasilyasanticipated.overtime,employeesdoseea‘‘lightattheendofthe
tunnel”andthechangeeventuallyProducessomepositiveresults.Theredlineillustrates
whatispossiblewithe掻ectivechangemanagement:alesstraumaticvisittothevalleyand
greaterresultsastheprogrammereachescompletion.Canyouavoidthe”valleyofdespair”
altogether?Probablynot.AJ1changeprogrammesinvolvesomeloss,Thebestapproachis
toacknowledgethatelmーployeeswillmournthelossofbusinessasusual,muchas
people
experiencestagesofgrievingwhentraumainvadestheirpersonallives.
Kotter’s Eight‐Stage ModeI
Probablythemostwidelycited,andwidelyapp”ed,stagemodelofchangeistheone
developed
byiotlnKotter(2007;2012a),mentionedea川erinthischapter,Kotter’Smodelissummarized
mtablelo,5,ltiss。met鱈nespresentedasanothercheck旦St,butthisisatmsrepresentation.
rotehow hiseight‐stageapproachtotransit)rmationalchangeopenswith“createasenseof
urgencコメ(un仕eeze),passest虚。ugh
“empowerpeopletoact”(move),andendswith“institu-
ti。na比とenewapproaches
”(re丘eeze).Lew血’sechocanbeheardinthis model,too.
Kotteradvisesthechange managerto workthroughthoseeightstagesmoreorlessin
sequence.
rForush ort。 missout。n any。ftheStagesincreasesthechanceof魚ilure,
H[owever, Kotter alsorecognizesthatthiSis
an “ideal” perspective,aschangeis
o貴en
untidyanditerative.Aswiththechecklists,thismodelcodifiesthestagesofchange
ina
clearandeasilyunderstood manner,However,thechange managerstillhastocombine
ChaPterlO
C乃α′7ge脳毎′mgemβ′7「Per卸ec”1を.y
329
FIGUREIO.I
TheC1assicChangeCurve
High
〉麗
THECLAss1c cHANGECURVE Muchbetter
expectations
l謹灘 thanbefore
Realizationof
effortand
ComP1exity
Despalr
〆
#
Lightatt
〆
ofthet
u
圃圏麹 Typicalprogram
梱
榔
圏Effectiveprogram
Source:Schneider,D,~1りandGoldwasser,C,1998,
localknowledgewithcreativethin姫ngtotranslatethisadviceintoPracticalactionsthat
areappropriatetotheorganizationalcontextandtothenatureofthechangesthatare
beingProPosed.Therearemanyways,食)rexamP1e,inwhichto“createasenseofurgency
“
orto”commーunicatethevision”orto“institutionalizenewapProaches.
”Aswithchecklists,
these
stage
models
are
also “high
level” guides,ratherthan
detailed “best
Practice
”
丘ameworks.
APPelbaum etaL(2012)reviewed the evidence relating tothe e掻ectiveness
of
Kotter’s modeland あundsupPort あr mostoftheindividualstePs. However,despite
Kotter’sargumentaboutintegratingtheeightstages,nostudieshadevaluatedtheframe-
workasa whole,ontheotherhand,there wasnoevidencetochallengethePractical
valueoftheaPproach,whichremainsPOPular.Theauthorsarguethat“Kotter’schange
management modelaPPearsto
derive
its
POPularity more 登om its
directand usable
恥rmatthan 登om anyscientificconsensusontheresults”(Appelbaum etal.,2012,P.
764).Theyconclude,therefbre,that Kotter’s modelisuse鏡linchangeimplementation
P1anningbutshouldbecomP1ementedbyothertoolsto adaPtthe change processto
localconditions.
Kotter(2012b,p,52)subsequentlyrevisedhis丘amework,arguingthatthecomPonents
identifiedintablelo,5shouldbeseenas”changeaccelerators“tospeedupchange,The
new argumenthasthreeaspects.First, Kotterarguesthattheaccelerators mustoPerate
concurrently,ratherthaninsequence.Second,change mustnotrelyonasmallpowerful
330
ChaPterlO
C
t770′7ge脳超′mgの77e/7′Re窟¥)ecr′yes
TABLEIO.5 stage
VVhatls1nvolved
Kotter’s霊ight‐
ExaminemarketandcompetitiVerealities.Stagewl。del。f
l.E繁Qb′′shosenseofurgenCy.
,dentifyanddiscusscr-sesandopportunities.TransformーationaI
Change
2,Form oPOWer打u/9u′d′n9
Assemb-eagrouPWithPoWertoleadthechange,
coo〃”on.
Encouradethisclrouptoworktodetherasateam.
thinking.
6.P/onfiorqndcreore
Pianforvisibleperformance1mprovements.
shorr‐te““ w′ns.
RewardemP1oyeesinvolvedinimProvements,
ChaPterlO
C力α′?ge羽q′7αge“7e′”βe′1Ped′1ぞs
331
that question has been anSWered,the changecan pr○ceedt○the nextStage.Thefive
Stagesare:
Assess
Arc胡red
球′heredowewanttogo?
Howreadyare wetog。there?
W〆hatmustwed。togetthere?
Howdowemanagethejourney?
Howdowecontinuetoimprove?
Thismodelo爺ersguidelines長)rmanagingboththehardPerlt)rmanceandsofthealth
isSues.Thefiveguidelines云or managingperlbrmanceare:
1.Szm肥厚co勿ecz/yes鰹叩かe」,CreateacomPellinglongterm changevlslon,Setmidterm
asPirationsalongthepath,andguardagainstbiasesintheProcess.
2.S顔/ムsezre秘密e′“ems 魚ssessノ.Forecastdemand 危rs顔1IS,andunderstandtheirSuPP1y
dynamics;thendecidehowtoclosegaPS.
3.βα〃卿鰯eP厄〃 〃効力ecリ.DefinethePort危lioofinitiativesthatwillrealizeyourstra‐
tegic o廟ectives,and meetyourskillrequirements;then sequence youractions and
reallocateresourcesaccordingly.
4. のり“er嘘字 mode/@cリ.EstabliShstronggovernance,decidehowtoscaleyourchange
initiatives, monitor
their
Progress, and
dynamically
adjust
them
throughout
implementation.
5.乙e鯖′?!〃g″折口szr肥れぽerodyの7ceノ.lnstitutionalizeProcessesand exPertiseS0thatthe
organizationshareSknowledge,constantlyimproves,andcontinuallylearnshowtod。
newthings(KellerandSchaninger,2019a,P.8).
The行veguidelinesあrmanaginghealthare:
1. 嵐eの物gm応 超功能ノ.0醇ectivelycheckyourorganization’Shealth,choosewheretobe
exceptional,andtargetareaSthatneedimmediateimprovement.
2.MZ〃ぬezsね諺s 彰ssessノ.PinPointhelpingand hinderingbehaviors 危r Priorityhealth
areaS,e×P1oretheunderlying mindsetdrivers,and prioritizeacritical 免w “丘om-to”
mindsetshi賃s.
3.加卵“e〃ce/eyeな にたた!『ecリ.Use危urleverstoreshapetheworkenvir。nment:role mod‐
embog,understandmgandconviction,rein危rcementmechamsms,andcon6‐dence-build血g
e甜orts.ThenensurethatPerformanceinitiativesareengineeredtopromotetheneces-
sary mindsetandbehavioralshi仕s.
4. Ge〃eだのZo〃 げe〃e′割ノ@cリ.Mobilizeinfluenceleaders, makethechangepersonal危r
emP1oyees,and maintain high‐impact,two‐waycommunication.
5.乙eqde都月彰 〆αceme′”‘”dyの7ceノ.Prioritizeongoingrolesbytheirpotentialto create
value, matchthe mostinnPortant。nest。thebesttalent,and makethetalent‐match
Processbusinessasusual(KellerandSchaninger,2019a,P,8).
EvenifthishighlydetailedprescriPtioniS危1lowedcare鏡1ly,trans危rmation canstill
disaPPoint.AccordingtoN[CKinseyresearch,adoPtinga”
Pipeline
”analogy,Problemso賃en
ariSethrough
“leakage,
”whichmayexP1ainthe70PercentfailurerateofP1annedchange:
332
ChaPterlO
C乃α′7ge脳”′?αg1e′77g′7rReri¥)ecr′}’郷
lt’sallaboutavoidingleakage.SoattheasPirationstage,長)lksdon’tgo長)rtheir和1IPoten-
tial.Theygo化)rsevenoutoftenofit.AねdthenintheP1anningandexecution,theylet
somethingss1ide,Theydon’tseesomethingsallthewaythrough.Aねdtheydosevenout
oftenofit.Then,finally,theydon’tbuildinthechangesthatarenecessary貴)rtheinitia-
tivetobesustained.Theygetitsevenoutoftenright,\Mell,ifyou multiplythattogether,
thosesevensoutoftens,youquicl紅ygettoabouta30Percentsuccessrate.That’s
what
we’veseen,agamandagain.Youhaveto,ateachstepoftheprocess,goforthe
looper‐
centandbeabletorealizethefulIPotentialofthebusinessinorder化)rthetransit)rmation
tobesuccess位1,(Bucyetal,2o17a,p.3)
Bucyetal.(2017b)oぼerthree Piecesofadvice 危rkeepingthePipelineintactand
transft)rlnationalchangeontarget,First,berg/e刀″ess,assumingthat mostinitiativesWill
deliverlessthantheypromiseatthestart.Aぬdensurethattimeisallocatedtosmaller
initiatives,Torein貴)rcethispoint,theyuseaninteresting
“boulders,pebbles,andsand”
analogy.
“Boulders”areinitiativesthatareeachexpectedtocontributeatleast5percent
ofthe
program’s
total
value,
“Pebbles” are
expected
to
contribute
between
o.5
and
5Percent,AJ1initiativesexpectedto contributelessthano.5percentofthetotalvalue
are“sand.
”N[CKinseyresearchsuggeststhat50percentofthetotalvalueofmanytrans‐
あrmationprogramstypicallycomes丘omsand.FocusingefGortontheboulders-thelarge,
high‐profileinitiatives-isthere危rerisky.lnaddition,itisusuallyquickerand easierto
implementthe”sand,
” which mayinvolve 元werlayersofapprovalandlesscumbersome
coordination.
second,たα/sresoz/rce品 anddonotexpectyourbestchange managerstorun more
thanthreeinitiativesatthesametime,APdcontrolthenumberofmetricsand milestones,
manyofwhichareneverusedandbecomeunnecessaryburdens,Third,〃/の7の?ααdqpr;
expectsomepr(ガectstobedelayed,and managethiswith week1yactionsforinitiative
ovvners,
AppraisingtheStage Models
Stagemodelscomplementthechecklistapproachbyhighlightingthewayinwhichchange
un云oldsovertime.ThisleadstotheM【cKinseyobservationthatchanges 態ilto deliver
theirpromises
dueto “leakageinthepipeline
“
as
changeun危lds.As we have noted,
changeislikelyto makedi都erentdemandsonthechange manager-and onthose who
areafiectedbychange-ateach ofthediぼerentstages.AJthough changeisrarelytidy,
kllowingtheprobable
sequence
ofevents,and how that maybe
disrupted,allowsthe
change managertoanticipateandprepare 危rpotentialdi賃iculties,
Stage modelsareopentothreecriticisms.First,despitetheemphasisoneventsunfold-
ingovertime,these modelsrarelyre免rto whathasgonebeおrethecurrentintervention,
W′hathashappenedinthepast,however,withregardto previouschangeattempts,will
influence
responses
tocurrentproposals,Consider,危rexample,thechange management
actionsthatmayberequiredto“createasenseofurgency
”in an organizationthat
has
seen manypreviousunsuccessfulchangesthatseniormanagementdrovewith”asenseof
urgency
”and wheretopteamcredibilityisnowlow.Contrastthiswiththeorganization
wheretheopportunityorthreatiscleartoallstaぜ members,who,onthebasisofrecent
experienceofchange,placeahighdegreeoftrustinthetopteam,ltmaythuso賃enbe
help鏡ltoextendthetimelinebackwardandtoidenti勾(andifnecessary,tocompensate
fbr)previouseventsandoutcomesthat m卸influencetoday
’saction plans,
Chapterl〇
C力α′7ge凡毎′?αge′??e′汀ReなPecr′ves
333
Second,itローayalsobeheIPfulto e×tendthetimeline化)rward,beyond”consolidate”
and
”institutionalize.
” Even
changes
that
are
successful will
eventually decay without
aPProPriateぱlaintenance.Parado樽ically,successfulchangescanalsoinhibittheilnーP1emen-
tationoffurtherinnovation,which maybeseenasnovel,risky,andathreattocurrently
eぼective operations.Theissuesthatarisein managingthesustainability ofChangeare
exploredinchapterll.
Finally,as withchange
checklists,stage modeIS
Oぼerfurther“highlevel“guidance,
leavingthechange managertodeterminehowinpracticetoapplythatadviceinagiven
context.Thereisnoclear,unambiguousstatementof“thisiswhattodo.
”Thecontingency
approachestochange managementexploredinthenextsection,however,seektoadvise
thechange managerhowtoadjustimplementationstrategiese稀ectiveiytodi節erentcon‐
textsandconditions.
瞳圃圏圃翻The Process Perspective
Change
is
a
process,and
not
an
event, This
is
a
straight危rward
observation
andis
reflectedinthestage modelsofchange managementdiscussedintheprevioussection.
Processperspectives,however,highlightothersigni賃cantaspectsoforganizationalchange
and drawtheattentionofthechange managertoissuesnotcoveredbyeitherchecklists
orstage models.Aユthoughpotentially makingchangeappeartobe morecomplex,process
thinkingencouragesthe
change managerto
adopta morecomprehensive approachto
designing,planning,implementing,andreviewingchangeactivities,
oneofthearchitectsoftheprocessualperspective, 山Ddrew Pettigrew(1985;1987),
cautionedagainstlookingfbrsinglecausesandsimpleexplanationsあrchange.lnstead,
hepointedtothemanyrelated 態ctors-individual,group,organizational,social,politica1一
thatcanaがectthenatureand outcomesofchange.Pettigrew observedthatchange was
acomplexand”untidycocktail”thatincludedrationaldecisions, mixed withcompeting
individualperceptions,o貸enstimulatedbyvisionaryleadership,andspicedwith“
power
plays
“torecruitsupportandtobuildcoalitionsbehindparticularideas.
lnthisview,theunitofanalysisisnot“thechange
“:anew organizationstructure,or
newtechnoloIW,ornew workingpractices.Theumtofanalysisis“theprocessofchangein
context“:howanewstructurew皿be血lplementedanddevelopedinthisparticularorgam-
zationalsetting.This
subtle
shi宣in perspectivehastworelatedimplications.First,this
meanspayingattentiontothe”ow ofeventsandnotthinkゴロロgofchangeaseitherstaticor
neatlyt山ie‐boundedwithde行nedbeg山ningandendPoints.Second,t垣salso meanspay血g
attentiontothewidercontextinwhichchangeistakingplaceandnotthinkingintermsof
aparticularlocationintimeandgeography(thisnewmachineinthis魚ctorybay).lnshort,
processperspectivesarguethat,tounderstandorganizationalchange,onehasto
understand
howthesubstance,context,andprocessinteractovert無letoproducetheoutcomes.
Patrick DawsonandConstantine山odriopoulos(2017)hを奴e範rtherdevelopedthispro‐
cessualperspective.They makeitclearthattounderstandchangeweneedtoconsiderthe
fbllowingissues:
1.Thecomexz-past,present,andfuture-in whichtheorganizationfunctions,
including
externalandinternal魚ctors,andtheorganization
’shistoryaspasteventsshapecurrent
responses
334
chapterlO
C力α′7ge肋名α′mge〃7e′7rRe′1Ped′1ぞs
2.Theszのsrm7ceofthechangeanditsscaleandscoPe,Whichcouldbenewtechnology,
processredesign,anew paymentsystem,orchangestostructureand
culture
3.Ther〆α′7s/rZO′?〃rocess,includingtasks,activities,decisions,timing,andsequencing
4,Fがなにα
activity, Within
and
outside
the
organiZation,shaping decisions,securlng
support
5. TheZ′?Zero”!○′7sbetweenthese 魚ctors,WhichshaPeboththechangeprocessandthe
outco]比les
This perspectiveincorporatestherole
ofpowerand politicsinshaping organizational
change,This
is
a 篤aturethatthe perspectiVes we have
examinedso 魚reitherdonot
mention ordealwithonlybrieny,Asorganizationsarepoliticalsystems,andaschange
isinevitablyapoliticizedprocess,theprocessperspectivearguesthatthechange manager
mustbewillingtointerveneinthepoliticsoftheorganization.lnthisrespect,thekey
taskistolegitimizechangeproposalsinthe錠ceofcompetingideas,Themanagementof
changecanthusbedescribedas“the managementofmeaning,
“ whichinvolvessymbolic
attemptstoestablishthecredib道tyofparticulardefinitionsofproblemsandsolutions
andtogainconsentandcompliance丘om otherorganization members,Partofthistask,
thereあre,istodoWith“the wayyoutellit,
“or moreaccurately With“the wayyouse//
irtoothers,
Dawson and Aiodriopoulos(2017)identi~ eightlessonsfrom a process perspective
concerningchange managementpractice:
1. There
are
no
universal
prescriptions
or
simple
recipes
For
how best
to
manage
change,
2. Changeisapoliticalprocess,andchangeleadersneedtobepoliticallysensitiveand
astute.
3. Time,planning,andflexibilityareessentialinchangingattitudesandbehaviorsandin
galn・ngcommitmentForchange.
4.Theyadvocate“criticalreflection,
”challengingtaken-免r‐grantedassumptions;あrexam-
ple,withregardtoresistance,which maybedesi1ableifitsubvertsa weakinitiative.
5.ltisimportanttolearnfrombothpositiveandnegativeexperlences.
6, Education, training, and
development
should
be
aligned
With
new operating
Procedures.
7. Communication
is
fundamentally
important
in
steering
processes
in desired
directions,
8,
“Contradictionsprovidehealthあodあrcriticalreflection.
” Changerequiresconstant
adaptationtocontextualcircumstances,
M[ostofthisadviceechoestheguidance丘omchecklistsandstage models,However,
Wherethechecklistssay
”dothis,
”
processaccountsadvise,
“beawareofthis,
“notingthat
there are no “bestpractice
”recipesForchange.The process perspectivedi窟ersinthe
emphasis placed
ontherole
ofpower and politics
in
shaping
change outcomes, one
implicationofthisemphasisisthatthechange managermustbepoliticallyskilledandbe
wilロngandabletousethoseskills.Thecapabilitiesofthechange managerareexplored
inchapter12.
ChaPterlO
C方α′7ge崩毎′?αge〃7g′7ZReri¥)ecm’es
335
Processtheoryarguesthattheoutcomesofchange
areproduced
bytheinteractionsofseveralfac
tors
overtimeinagivencontext.VVhatdoesthislooklike
inpractice?DondeP1owmanandcolleagues(2007)
giveafascinatingaccountofwhattheyca=“radicaー
changeaccidenta=y′’Theystudiedtheturnaround
ofルグ′ss′on cわurch,afailing
or9anization
ina
large
southwesternU.S.city,
The
organizational
context
was
unstable.The
church Wasfaced with
a
potentia1lyterminal
prob-
lem.Seenasatraditional”silkstockings”church,the
organization
was
asset
rich
but
cash
poor.Atten-
danceandmembershipWeredeclining.There
were
ongoingconflictsinvolvingaKKKplaque,theplay-
ingofiazzinthechurch,andwhethergaysandles‐
biansshouldbeacceptedasmembers.Thepurpose
andidentityofthechurchcreatedfurthertensions,
particuーarly with
regardto
includingthe
homeーess
andotherswhoWereexcーuded.Withseveralprevi-
ouschangesinleadership,therehadbeentwopas-
tors
in
three
years,resulting
in
the
controversiaー
appointmentoftwoco‐pastors.
Howdidchangebegin?A9roupofyoungsters,
whodid
not1ikethetraditional
church
school
pro-
gram,hadthe
idea
ofprovidinghotbreakfastsfor
homeless
people
on
Sunday
mornings.Some
of
thoseyoungsterswere
noteven
church
members;
theyWeresoonservin9
500peopleeverySunday.
Thehotbreakfastsideawasneverintendedtopro-
duce
radical
change.However,P1owman
and
col-
leaguesarguethatsmaーーactionssuchasthiswere
”amplified“bytheunstab-econtext.
VVhatweretheoutcomes?Church
membership
recovered,invoーvin9aWiderrangeofthelocalpop‐
u-ation
including
the
homeless
and
minorities.
Homelessindividualsjoinedthechurch,sanginthe
choir,and
served
as
ushers.The
style
ofworship,
formalityofdress,andmusicchangedasdidthepro-
fileofthecongregation;thiswas
nolongera“silk
stockings”church.The
church
gotcityfundingto
provideadaycenterforseveralthousandhomeless
andwassoonservin9over20,00omealsayear.ln
additionto
breakfasts
and
clinics,the
church
pro-
videdーegalassistance,jobtraining,laundryservices,
andshowerfacilities.Thechurchmottochangedto
include“justiceintoactionP
VVhydidthishappen?The“contextualconfigura‐
tion”thatencouragedongoingchangeincluded:
・
Dissatisfied youngsters
came
up
With
the
hot
breakfastsidea.
・
Adoctorworkingasavolunteerofferedtotreat
medical
problems
instead
and soon
recruited
others,leadingtofull‐scale medical,dental,and
eyeclinicsaspartoftheSundayactivity.
・
ThechurchremovedtheKKKplaque-a major
symbolicact,
・
Leadersactedas“sense‐9lvers,
“providingmean-
ingratherthandirectingchanges,andchosethe
languagelabe1s:”purgin9P”recovering,
””reach-
ingouttothemarginaーized.
“
・
Affluent
members
left
as
the church
focused
increasinglyonthehomeless,andnew(lessafflu-
ent)memberswereattractedbythemessageof
inclusivity.
Thefeatures
oftheorganizationafcontextencour-
agedaseriesofsmallchangestoemergeandampli-
fiedtheseintoanunplanned,radicaー,andsuccessful
change
process,There was
notop‐downtransfor-
mation
designed
byseniorーeaders.Thisisa
good
exampleofaprocessualaccountofchangeunfo-d-
ingovertime,illustratinghowfactorsatdifferent1ev-
els
ofanaーysis
interactto
produce
the
outcomes,
P1owmanetaー,(2007)offerthefollowingadvicefor
thechange manager.First,besensitivetocontext,
Second,be
prepared
to
be
surprised;the
emer-
genceofsmall
changes
isnotan
orderlyprocess.
Third,viewthosesmaHchangesopportunistically,in
termsofhowtheymightbedeveloped.
Theprocessperspectiveonchangethusappearstohavethreestrengths;
1.ltrecognizesthecompleXityofchange,draw血gattentiontothe立lteractionbetween many
魚ctorsatdiflコerentlevels,shapmgthenature,d立ection,andconsequencesofchange.
336
ChaPterlO
C/?”′7ge崩‘”′mge′77g′7『Re′~梯形cm’es
2.ltrecognizeschangeasaprocesswithapast,apresent,andafuture,ratherthanas
astaticortilne‐boundedeventordiscreteseriesofevents,
3.lthighlightsthepoliticalnatureoforganizationsandchange,e・鮒LPhasizingtheimpor-
tanceofpoliticalskilltothechange manager.
However,theprocessperspectivehasthreelimitations:
1,ChangeinthisperspectiVeisindangerofbeingpresentedasoverco理ーp1ex and over-
whehDoinglyconfusing,andthusasunmanageable.
2,Thosewhoareinvo1vedinthechangeprocessaresometimesportrayedas minorchar-
actersmthebroadsweepofevents,relegatedtotheroleofsense-giversandinterpreters
controlled
by
social
and
contextual
化)rces,rather
than
as
proactive
“movers
and
shakers,
“
3,ltdoesnotlenditselfreadilytotheidentificationofspecificguide且nes,云ocusingon
awarenessratherthan prescription. Adviceisthuslimitedtothoseissuesto which
change managementshouldbesensitive:compleXity,process,context,politicalinflu‐
ences,opportunity.
霞園瞳園 ContingenCy APProaches
Dawsonand 山ロdriopoulos(2017)arenotaloneinnotingthattherearenouniversal“one
bestway
”
prescriptions食)rmanagingchange,ThishasledtothedeveloPmentofcontin-
gency approaches, which
arguethatthe
best wayto
manage
change depends
onthe
context.Vi/ewillexplore節urcontingencyapproaches:“〃?eだ め 肺α“?,豹e 豹の?ge尼ααのも
sため 助走sの′”/′7・〃〃′77,Z庇 Srqce‐D”′のたJノの〃『!′増のりノ〃7のr鳶,and 的eああpe息の刺んβ〆昭雄7
欲の増eたα/e緩osmのe.
VVhereto Start?
The
problem
has
been
diagnosed,and
appropriate
organizationalchanges
have been
agreed. Whatto do next? Wheretobegin? Hope Haileyand Balogun(2002,p,158)
discussthisbrieflyintheircontingency model(explainedbelow)arguing,
”Changecan
start丑om‐toP‐down,bottom-up,orsomecombinationofthetwo,orasanotheralternative,
bedevelopedfrom pocketsofgoodpractice.Shouldchangebeimplementedthroughout
theorganizationsimultaneously,orcanitbedeliveredgraduallythroughpilotsites?”The
change manager,
isthus魚cedwitharangeofoptions.
Adoptinga novelapproachtothe question ofwheretostart, N1arco
Gardinietal,
(2011)arguethatchangeshouldbeginwiththosestaぜ whosecontributionswillhavethe
mostsignificantimpactontheaspectsofper危rmancethatneedtochange,ldentiルing
those”
pivotalroles”isvital,butthisisnotalways obvious.Theyreachedthis“pivotal
roles”conclusion 官om
e×Perience with alarge European retailbank.Thisbank,with
6,00obranches,魚cedincreasingcompetition官om more“customer‐丑iendly
’localbanks.
To
deal
withthis
threat, management
developed
a
new
organizational model, which
reduced centralsupervls・on and controland gavebranch managers moreautonomyto
tailortheir marketing,promotions,ando節eringstothe立localareas.Thenew modelwas
ChaPterlO
C方の増e虚劣の70gの77emHer撃沈″1ぞs
337
communicatedquickly‐toallstaぼ,andthewayinwhichthenew roles would work was
explained.Top managementdidthisthroughroadshows, memos,intranetarticles,and
bypublishingthenew organizationcharts.Everyonereceivedthesameinあrmation,and
thechanges werealltohappenatthesametime.
Reviewingprogressa花w monthslater,however,moststa茸 membershadnotchanged
theirworkingpractices.ln particular,thebranch managers werestillusingtheprevious
structureandproceduresbecausethey werea丘aidofmakingmistakesorannoyingmore
seniorstaぜ.Theregionalsupervisorswere meanttoactascoachestothebranch manag-
ers,butmanydidnothavecoachingskills,and manybranch managersdidnothavethe
skillstoruntheirown branchesand maketheirown decisions.Realizingthatthey
had
triedtochangetoo muchatthesametime,top managementdecidedto あcusonthose
whocoulddeliverthechangethe 危stest,Theregionalmanagers,perhaps,orthe
branch
supervisors? Neitherofthosegroupsqualified;theyhadnoimpactondailybranchactiv-
ities,couldtherelbrenota爺ectresults,andhadlittlecredibilitywith丘ontlinesta茸.The
branch managersthemselveshadthegreatestinfluenceontheoutcomesoftheplanned
changesbecause:
・ Theirworkhaddirectandsignificantimpactontherevenuestream.
・ Theywereconnectedwithmanyothergroupsacrosstheorganization,
・ Theycoulddecidehow peoplegotthingsdone.
lnotherwords,thebranch managerscombinedmanagerialimpactwithlocalcontrol,
buttheylackedthe
skills
and
attitudesto
drive
changequickly.Theimplementation
P1an
was
redesigned, 免cusinginitially
onthe
6,00o
branch
managers. Thetraining
designedespeciallyfbrthem beganwiththeirroleinthenew organizationalmodeland
covered commercialskills,creditand asset managementcapabilities,qualityand cus-
tomer
satis鏡ction
principles,and
other
skills
such
as
managing people,communica-
tions,andconflictresolution.onlywhenthebranch managers wereready-six
months
later-didthebankstartto work with othersta菖 andsupervisors, with di爺erentpro-
grams
designed 危rdifferentroles,Thistimetheresults were much better. Eighteen
monthslater:
・ Thenumberofproductssoldperbranchhadrisenby15percent.
・ Thetimespentmakゴヒロgcreditdecisionshad翫1lenby25percent.
・ Branchrelationship managerswerespending30percentmoretimewithcustomersdue
tothestreamlinedprocess.
・ Customerresponsesto marketingcampaignsdoubled,withanationalsurveyshowing
a20percentimprovementincustomersatis魚ction,
・ Knowledgesharingand mutualsupportincreased,andthebankbecamemorereceptive
toideas丘omfront亘nestaぜ.
Gardinietal.(2011)concludethatchangeismorelikelytobesuccess前lifimple
mentationhastwokeycomponents.First,startwiththe‘‘
pivotalpeople,
”whosework
isclosesttotheactivitiesthatneedtobeimproved.Second,designacomprehensive
program
with
clear
and
meaningful
goals,linking
those
in
pivotalroles
with
the
338
ChaPte「1O
C乃α′7ge崩必m7αge′77の7rRe郡切に〃1ぞs
changesthatthe
rest
ofthe
organization
hasto
α1ake. This
question
of“whereto
start isnotaddressedexplicitlybythechecklists,stagemodels,orprocessapproaches.
This,ofcourse,isnottheonlyContingencya]ぼectingtheappropriate mLodeofchange
ilnLple]α1entation,
The ChangeLeadershipstyles continuum
oneofthe oldestcontingencyapproachesaddressesthe question ofchange manage-
茸lentstyle,whichcanrange overacontinuum 丑om autocraticto delnocratic,or,as
Tannenbaum and schmidt(1958)describedthis,from leadeトoriented to 貴)1loweト
orientedleadership(seeFigurelo.2).Thecultures-or,atleast,the managementtext‐
books-of developed
western
economies
have
endorsed
participative approaches
to
change management,食)rwhichevidencehaslongestablishedthebenefits(e.g.,Coch
andFrench,1948).Thosewhoareinvolvedinthedesignandimplementationofchange
are
more
likelyto
contribute
to
its
success
than those
on whom change
has
been
imposed,However,thechange managershouldbeawareoftherangeofoptionsavail‐
ablewithregardtostyleandofthedisadvantagesandadvantagesofthese(seetablelo.6),
Forexample,
“telling
”
people withoutparticipationisquickanddecisive,butitmay
causeresentmentand doesnotcapturestaffideas. ontheotherhand,
”invitingpar‐
ticipation”increasescommitmentandaccesstousefulinformation,butitistimecon‐
sumingandinvolvesalossofmanagementcontrol,lnacrisiswherearapidresponse
isrequired,
“inviting participation
” can bedamaging,ln an organizationthatvalues
theknowledgeandCommitmentofits
sta賃,theresentmentcausedby“telling”sta賃
aboutplannedchangescanalsobedamaging,Choiceofchange managementstylethus
needstoreflectthecontext,
The stace‐Dunphy contingency Matrix
Participativeapproachestochange managementhavealsobeenchallengedbythework
oftwoAustralianresearchers,DougStaceand DexterDunphy(Staceand Dunphy,2001),
TheirapproaChbeginsbyestablishingascaleofchange,丘om “finetuning
”to“corporate
trans危rmation“(seetablelo,7andFigurel.1,
‘Assessing DepthofChange,
“inchapterl).
Theythenidentiル 危urstylesofchange(seetablelo,8),
FIGUREIO.2
Tallnenbaum-SchmidtLeadershipContinuum
Leadermakesdecisionsthatareopentoreview
ChaPte「1O
C乃研7ge粥‘”′mgの’7emβのPeczか弧
339
繍
霊
正
解
e
o
鵬
鮎
脚
欲
繊
細
~
≠
m
r
u
c
a
5
繍
幽
図
画
$
官
b
S
墨
棚
服
飾
ug
o
rtments
tion,bette
enthighe
eddecisio
nformati
erdecisi
340
ChaPterlO
C77の7ge崩‘”′?qge′77gm目標功ecr′yes
P1ottingscaleofchange againststyleofchangeproducesthe mlatriXinFigure
lo,3.
Thisidentifies ourstrategies:ParticiPativeevolution,charismatictransFormation,貴)rced
evolution,and dictatoria.transft)rlnation.Figure
lo,3alsoadvocatestheuseofdiがerent
change managementstylesdependingontheattributesofthecontext.Staceand Dunphy
(2001)thusarguethatparticipativestrategiesareti・neconsumingastheyexposeconflict-
ingviewsthataredifficulttoreconcile,▽vhereorganizationa.survivaldependsonrapid
andstrategicchange,dictatorialtransfbrmationisappropriate.StaceandDunphy(2001,
p,185)citetheexampleofapolicechiefappointedtostamp outcorruption and mod‐
ernizeapolicedepartmentwho,inhisown words,initiallyadopteda managementstyle
thatwas“6‐rm,hardandautocratic,andithadtobethatbecausethatiswhattheorga-
nizationunderstood,
”
onceagain,wehaveacontingencyperspectivethatarguesthat,whiiecollaborative-
consultativemーodeswillworkwellundersomeconditions,therearecircumstanceswhere
directive-coercive modesofchange managementarelikelytobemoreappropriate and
e爺ective,lnparticular,where majorchangesarenecessaryfbrsurvival,timeisshort,and
thoseaぼectedcannotagreeonthechanges,then dictatoria.trans.brmation maybethe
necessarychoiceofstyle.lnvitingparticipation underthoseconditions wouldtaketime
andbeunlikelytoproduceanyagreement,
FIGUREIO.3
Thestace-DunpllyContingencyApproachtoChangelmplementation
ーncrementalchange
strategies
Transformativechange
strategies
Port′c′Pot~eevo/Ur′on chor′smor′crrons危rmor′on
Collaborative一
Consultative
modes
Usewhentheorganization
needsminoradUustmentto
meetenvironmental
conditions,wheretimeis
available,andwherekey
interestgroupsfavorchange
Usewhentheorganizationneeds
majoradjustmentstomeet
environmentalconditions,where
thereislittletimefor
participation,andwherethereis
supportforradica-change
Forcedevo/〃”on D′Crotor′oだro“s行ormo士′o打
Directive-coerC1ve
modes
Usewhenminoradjustments
arerequired,wheretimeis
available,butwherekey
interestgroupsopposechange
Usewhenmajoradjustmentsare
necessary,wherethereisnotime
forparticipation,wherethereis
nointernaーsupportforstrategic
change,butwherethisis
necessaryforsurvival
sco/eofchonge:
Sty/eofchonge:
Source:StaceandDunphy(2001).
ChaPterlO
C/zの増e叱函′mgememβセメー字だけかes
341
The Hope Hailey‐Balogun Change Kaleidoscope
Veronica Hope HaileyandJuliaBalogun(2002;Balogunetal.,2016)alsoadvocate a
conte×t‐sensitiveaPProachtothedesignandimplementationofchange,Their丘amework
identifiesthecharacteristicsoftheorganizationalcontextthatshouldbetakenintocon‐
sideration when makingchangeimP1ementationdesignchoices.Theydescribethisframe-
workas“TheChange Kaleidoscope,
”shownin Figurelo.4(HopeHaileyand Balogun,
2002,p,156),
FIGUREIO.4
TheChangeKaleidoscope
Theargumentthatchangeimーp1ementationshou1dref1ecttheorganiZationa1contextis
notanovelone,butH[opeHaileyandBalogunarguethatothercontingency models化)cus
ontoo narrow arange of魚ctorssuch astypeofchange,time 丘alエーe,thePowerofthe
change manager,andthedegreeoforganizationalsuPport食)rchange.Theeightcontext
魚ctorsinthechangekaleidoscoPeare:
万′7だ
Scope
Presery傭わ〃
Dれ形な!ぴ
Reαの〃ess
DePend立1gonurgency,whatisthenecessaryspeedofthe
change?
Hownarrow orbroadisthescoPeofthechangeagenda?
lsthereaneedto maintainadegreeofcontinuityonsomedimen‐
sions,insomeareas?
ALretheattitudesandvaluesofthosealmectedsimilarorarethere
diversesubcultures?
Dotheindividualsinvolvedhavethenecessaryskillsandknowledge?
Doestheorganization havetheresourcestoilローP1el・lent more
change?
▽vhatdegreeofaccePtanceoforresistancetochangeisthere?
▽Vhatisthepowerofthechange managerrelativetoother
stakeholders?
Contextfactors;
enablersandconstraints
lmplementationoptions
Timin9
Scope
Needforcontinuity
Diversityofattitudes
Capabilityofthoseinvolved
Capacityoftheor9anization
Readinessforchange
powerofthechangemana9er
VVhattypeofchangeisrequired?
VVhereshouldwestart?
VVhatimplementationstyleWi=Weuse?
VVhattar9etsareweaimingfor?
VVhatinterventionstrategieswillbeappropriate?
VVhatchangeimplementationrolesareneeded?
342
ChaPterlO
Cメ7の増ど脳〆”′mge′77gmReなPeα和郎
Theseeightcontext錠ctorscanbeeitherconstraints(e,g,,shortageoftime,low caPル
bility)orenablers(e,gりbroadagreementonneedforchange,power鏡lchange manager).
Thepointisthatthedesignofthechangeimplementationprocessshouldbeinfluenced
bythenatureofthosecontext鏡ctors.Hope Haileyand‐Balogun(2002,p.161)identiル
thesiXdesign optionssumαーarizedmtablelo,9,
TABLEIO.9
ChangeKaleidoscoPel1mP1e1mlenta錠on0Ptions
Designoptions
Meaning
方MPe
ThesCOPeandsPeedofthePrOPosedchange
万αrger
FocusonChangingoutputs,behaviors,attitudes,andvalues
′〃fervent′ons
Leversand mechanisms:technical,political,cultural,education,communication
andinFormedjudgmentarekeytochoosingthecontextuallyappropriatechangedesign
丘omthe widerangeofoPtionsavailable,aS HOPe Haileyand Balogun(2002,P.163)
explain:
Understandingthecontextualconstraintsandenablersiskeytounderstandingthetypeof
changeanorganizationisabletoundertakeasopposedtothetypeofchangeitneedsto
undertake,andthere長)rewhatsortofchangepathisrequifed.Sinロー旦arly,understandingthe
contextualconstraintsandenablersiscentralto mal圏LngchoicesaboutstartPointandstyle,
h産oreparticipativechangeaPproachesrequiregreaterskillsin態cilitation,agreaterreadi-
ness化)rchange丘omthoseparticipating,moretime,andthereIR)re,o貸en,morefunds.
Choicesaboutthechangetargetandinterventionsmayobviouslybea爺ectedbythescope
ofchange,butalsoby,丘)rexample,capacity.N1anagementdeveloPmentinterventionscan
beexpensiveandmーaynotbeaccessibletoorganizationswith1imitedfunds,lnrea1ity
choosingtherightoptionsisaboutasldingtherightquestionsandexercisillgchange
judgement.
Theargumentthat”thebestapproach
”dependsoncontextisanappealingone,Con‐
tingencyapproaches,however,arenotbeyondcriticism.First,theideaof“fitting
”change
implementationtoaparticulartypeofchangeinagivencontextmaybeeasiertoexplain
ChaPterlO
C方の7ge崩‘”′mgの’?emReなPecrか郡
343
intheorythantoputintopractice,Asthechangekaleidoscopeimplies,thechangeman-
agerneeds
considerabledepthandbreadthofunderstandingof
the change
contextto
n[lakein貴)rmedjudgments,Second,contingency approaches are more ambiguous and
difficulttoe×plainthanthesilnIP1er
“o音theshelf’competition丘omchecklistsandstage
models,Third,contingencyapproachesrequireadegreeofbehavioralfle)dbility,especially
withregardtostyle,withwhichsomeseniormanagers maybeuncom食)rtableiftheylack
the necessarycapabilities.Fourth,ifmanagers
adoptdinerentapproaches
at different
timesandindifferentconditions,willthisweakenthe壮credibilitywithstaf胃 Finally,is
everythingcontingent?Arethereno“universals”whenitcomestoorganizationalchange?
EXERC聡E
1nthischapter,wehaveexploredthreechan9eChecklists,threeStage modelsofimple-
10罰
mentation,the processaPProachtochange,andfourcontingencyframeWorks.These
Deyezo夢 箕αグ
approachesaresimilarinsomerespectsanddifferentinothers.Cantheybecombined?
ow“C乃α“ge
TrythefoHowlngexPeriment:
崩おメメ
1. Bringtheadvicefromthesedifferentmodeーsintoasingーelist,omittingtheoverlaps.
2一Reflectingonyourownexperienceandknowledgeoforganizationalchange,consider
瀞臓灘園園禦懸轍灘瀦灘翻灘
whatissuesandstepsare missingfromtheseguidelines;addthesetoyourmaster
list.Now createyourowncompositechange managementmode-;ifpossible,dothis
asagroupactivity.
3.Can
you
prioritizethis
advice? 帆′hatitemsare
more
important,and which
are
less
important?Takingacontingencyapproach,in whichorganizationcontextsdopartic-
ularitemsbecome moreorーesssignificant?
4.Canyouidentifyapreferredsequenceofchangeimplementationsteps?Andcanyou
explainandjustifythisrecommendation?
5.Lookingatyourcompositechange managementmodel,identifythree management
ski=sassociatedwitheachoftheelements.Usethisasthebasisofapersonaーassess-
ment;whatareyourstronqestandyourweakestchanqe manaclementskiーls?
EXERCISE
Asyoureadthiscase,considerthefollowin9questions:
10.2
,. canorganizationa-cu-turebeb-amedforp-anecrashes? wi=thosecrashesprompt
GezzZ〃g
Boeingtochangeitsculture,orcouldtheybeabarriertocu-turechange?
344
ChaPterlO
C’?”′7ge脳超′74ge/77e′7!RのPe“′1’es
4, Checkyouronline newssourcesand
bringthiscase historyupto date.Has David
Calhoun
been
ableto
changethe
culture
atBoeing?
Have
there been
any
more
accidents?VVhatisyourassessmentofDavid Calhoun’schangeleadership?
The American
companv Boeinq
makesairplanes,rockets,satel-ites,telecommunica-
Boeing
737
Max
crashed, killin9 189
peop-e. Five
months
ーater,in March
2019,an
EthiopianAirlines737Maxcrashed,ki=ing157people,lnvestigatorsfoundthattheplane’s
new Maneuvering CharacteristicsAugmentationSystem(MCA automaticallyforcedthe
aircrafttostallandnosedive,Thissystem hadbeenomittedfromflightmanualsandcrew
training.The U,S,FederaIAviation Authority(FAA)groundedthe737 Max.Boeing’srep‐
utation was
damaged.Butchiefexecutive
Dennis
Muilenburg
decidedto
keep making
the737
Max,to
demonstrate
confidence
inthe
plane,eventhoughtheycould
notbe
sold.Boeingfired Muilenbu『gattheendof2019,and David CalhountookoverasCEO.
下o
understand
how this
cou-d
have
happened,We
haveto
go
backto
l997,when
Boein9
acquired
McDonnelー
Douglas,a
competitorwith
a
”financefirstethos.
”Boeing
took
on
many
McDonnelI
Douglas
executives
including
their
chief
executive, Harry
Stonecipher,
rwho
was
known
for
his
ag9ressive
cost
cutting.ln 2001,Boeing’s
chief
executiveandthen
president,PhiI
Conditand
HarryStonecipher,decidedto
putsome
distancebetweenthecompany’s500seniormanagementandstaffandtheplane-mak-
ersand movedtheheadquartersto Chicago.-2,00o milesfrom Seattle.Theyexplained
thatseniormanagementwas
being
drawn
into day-to-day operational
decisions when
theyweresoclosetothemanufacturingbase.1nalarge,modern,multinationalcompany,
theyfeltthatseniorexecutivesshouldnothavesuchcontactwithengineers.Stonecipher
said,
“仇′henpeop-esaylchangedthecultureofBoeing,thatwastheintent,sothatit’s
run
likea
businessratherthana
greatengineeringfirm.ltisagreatengineeringfirm,
butpeop-einvestin a company becausethey wantto make moneゾ(Useem,2019).
StonecipherbecamechiefexecutiveofBoeingin2003(butwasforcedtoresignin2005
fo=owinganimproperrelationship withafemaleexecutive).
Thepreviouscloseproximityofmanagersandengineersmeant,however,thatsenior
executiveshadagoodunderstandingofengineeringissues.They”spokethelanguage
ofengineeringandsafetyasa mothertongue,
“andtheycouldseeforthemselveswhat
was happening.AS Useem(2019)pointsout,
”The present737 Max disastercan be
traced backtwodecades.‐tothe momentBoeing’sleadershipdecidedtodivorceitse
lf
fromthefirm’sownculture.
”WithStonecipheraspresident,thenews10gansbecame”a
Signallingtheshifttoa”shareholder-firstcuーture,
“
between
2014and 2019,Boeing
spent
$43,4
billion
on
stock
buybacks, and
only
$15,7
billion
on research
and
Chapterl〇
CZ7ロ“ge脳云の7αge〃?の”βを濁りに『んes
345
.
q
ー
C
n
n
q
-
developmentforcommercia-airplanes(Catchpole,2020,p.56).This culture placed
short-tenn
rewardsto
shareholders
ahead
ofengineering
decisions
and
longer‐term
strategy.Boeing’sboardevenapprovedafurther$20billionbuybackinDecember2018,
two monthsafterthefirst737Maxcrash(butthatdecision waslaterreversed).
Theimmediatecausesofthe737 Maxcrashes weretechnical--fauーtysoftware.But
otherfactorshadplayedarole.lntheinterestsofcostandtimeto market,Boeinghad
decidedto modi~the737ratherthandesignanewaircraftfrom scratch.下oavoidreg-
ulatorydelays,Boeing maintainedthatnoadditionalpiーottraining wasrequiredforthe
737 Max.Boeingengineersweresurprisedwhensomesoftwaredevelopmenttasks(not
specifictoMCAS)wereoutsourcedtoco=egegraduatesemployedbyanlndiansubcon-
tractorinSeattleearning$9anhour.Edpierson,aformerBoeing manage若claimedthat,
beforethefatalcrashes,the737Maxhadexperienced morethanadozenothersafety
incidents. Pierson
said,
“Something
happened
in
the
translation
from,
‘let’s
build
a
high‐qualitysafeproducrto‘ーersgetitdoneontimざ Diss,2020).Therewaspressure
on737englneersandtestpilotsandalsoa
lotofpressureon
productionemployees.
Pierson saw tired vvorkers doingjobsfor whichthey were nottrained,and making
mistakes.Heasked
managementtoshutdownthe737factory,buttheyrefused.The
softwarefailureswerethussymptomsofa widermanagementproblem.
ln March2020,theHouseTransportationCommittee,oftheU.S.Congress,re-eased
itspreliminaryfindingsfollowingayearofinvestigationintothe737Maxcrashes.Con-
c-udin9thatthesetragicaccidentsweredueto multiplefactors,the Committee’sreport
focusedonfiveissues:
Theimplementationofaggressivecostcuttin9andexcessivepressureonemployees
to maintaintheproductionpressure,duetocompetitionfrom Airbus.
Boeing’sfauーtyassumptionsaboutcriticaltechnologies,andthe MCASsysteminpanic-
u-ar,whichreliedonasinglesensorand wasnotclassedasasafety-criticalsystem.
Boeing’scu-tureofconcealment,withholdingcriticalinformationfromthe FAA,cus-
tomers,andpilots.
Conflicts
ofinterestamon9
Boeing
employees who
were
authorized
to carry out
aviationsafetycertification workonbehalfoftheFAA.
・ Boeing’sinfーuenceontheFAパsoversight;FAA managementrejectedsafetyconcerns
raisedbytheirownexperts,
TheHouse下ransPo性ationComm紙ee(2020,p.13)concluded,
”Theseprelimina~inves-
tigativefindingsmakeclearthatBoeing mustcreateand maintainane作ectiveandvigorous
safetycultureandtheFAAmustdeveーoPamoreaggressivecenificationandoVersightstruc-
turetoensuresafeaircra代designsandtoregaintheconfidenceoftheflyingpublic.
”The
focusonfinancehadchangedtherelationshipsbetween
Boeing managementand engi-
neers:「twastheabiliWtocomfoitabーyinteractwithanengineerwhointurnfeelscomfon‐
ab-etelーingyoutheirrese~ations,versuscallingamanager2,00omilesawaywhoyouknow
hasarePutationforwantingtotakeyourpensionaway.lt’save~ d旧erentdynamic.Asa
redpefordisempowerーngengineersinpa忙iculallyoucouーdn’tcomeupWithabetterformat”
(Useem,2019},Boeings”moralcomPasぎ wasbroken,andthefocuson”makingthenur作
berざputquali夢andsafetyatrisk.McNultyandMarcus(2019,P.4)claimthat”Boeingshould
engageinadeepcultureredesignProcess茅Edmondson(2019)argues,
”Wharsrequiredis
346
ChaPterlO
Cym′7ge崩乾閉口ge′77g′”ReなPec“・’es
Find on
裟ou方ube,
”New Boeing CEO David CalhountakesthereinsbydeveloPingfreshstrate9y”
(2020,3:21minutes),
cose sourCes
Catchoole-D.2020.Boeing’slongdescent-月リアZz′′だIR1r2、:56一5文
TheHouseCommitteeonTransportationandln丘astructure,2020.刀ちgBoe′′7g 万7脳履又吻び喝丹′
Co廟,come堺′e′7ces, md/esso′7s方々o′77′Zsde霊宮′7,deye/G羽フ7mちα′?〆ce“前mr/o′?.Washmgton.
Useem,J.2019,Thelong-あrgottenf旦ghtthatsentBoeingo菖course.上deqs,November20,
https://www.theatlantic,com/ideas/archive/2019/11/how‐boeing‐lost‐its‐bearings,
EXERCISE
Asyoureadthiscase,considerthefo=owingquestions:
10.3
,. whatーsyourassessmentofthestrengthsandlimitationsofthe3Gapproachtochange?
D諺五[の〃z
2.ーfyou wereadvisingthe board ofKraftHeinzonhowto“invigorate“thecompany
CZZOたeo“ 豹e
today,whatchanges wou-d yourecommend,and why? Usethe dimensions ofthe
iGRに夢eP
changeka-eidoscopetoframeyouradviceconcerningtiming,scope,needforconti-
nuity,diversityofattitudes,capabilityofthoseinvolved,capacityoftheorganization,
園璽極圏鰍
readinessforchange,andpowerofthechange manager.
3.VVhatmistakeswouldyouadvisetheboardtoavoidwhenimplementingthechanges
thatyouarerecommending(refertotabーeslo.landlo.2)?
1n2013,Heinz,theiconicfoodcompany withanannualrevenueof$”.6bil-ion,vvas
boughtfor$29bi=ionby Warren BuffetrsBerkshire HathawayandtheBrazilianprivate
equityfirm 3G Capital.Thenew owners wastednotime makingchanges.Eーevenofthe
twelvemostseniorexecutiveswerereplaced,600staffwereーaidoff,thecorporateplanes
ata Holiday-nnhotelandnotattheRitz-Carlton,and muchlongerworkinghours were
expected.Micro‐managementlimitedeachstaffmemberto200copiesa month;printer
usage wastracked,Executiveswerea=owedonlyloobusinesscardsayear,
Heinzemployeesreferredto”aninsularmanagementstyleinwhichonlyasmallinner
circleknows whatisrealーygoーng on.
” onesaid,
“-t’sa
bitlike God-youfee-there’sa
ChaPterlO
C乃α′78g虜q′?”ge“7emβe潟夢βα′yes
347
grandplan,butyouaren’tsure whatitis“{Reingo-dandRoberts,2013,p.189),onthe
otherhand,3Ghadayoungteam ofmostlyBrazilianexecutives,who movedasdi「eCted
from companytocompanyacrosscountriesandindustries,loyalto3G,notHeinz,and
drivento workhardtoreceivebonusesorstockoptions.
Thedrivingforcebehindthesechanges Was“The3G い′ay“
Which3G hadusedto
managechangeinpreviousacquisitionssuchasBurgerKing.Efficiencywaskey,every-
thingwasmeasured,andcostswereslashed.lnthisperspective,「eanestand meanest“
wins,andhumancapitalwasnotseenasakeycomponentofcorporatesuccess.The
assumptionwasthatemployeesweremotivatedbytheeconomicreturnsthatcamefrom
owningcompanysharesratherthanbyanysenseofpurposeormission.
Thoselikelytobeaffectedbya3Gdealoftensaw a“howto”guide writtenbycon-
sultantBobFiferasa“mustread,
“becauseithadbeenpopularwiththepartnersat3G
(asithadbeen withJack Welch,theiconicchiefexecutiveatGE).Theguide wastitled,
“Double ourProfits:78 い′aysto CutCosts,lncrease Sales,and DramaticallylmProve
our
Bottom
Line
in
6
Months
or
l‐ess.
” Chaptertitles
included“CutCosts
First,Ask
QuestionsLater”and“Don’tBeAfraidto Useashotgun,
“
However,inthe mindsofmanyfood
industryexperts,whilesomeof3G’s
prevlous
acquisitions wou-d
have
been
primecandidatesfora
cost-cutting
regimen,Heinz was
not
an
obvious
target
for
that“hack
and
slash”approach.The company
had
been
throughseveralyearsofefficiencyimprovementsFslimmingandtrimming”),anditwas
alreadyare-ative-yーeanandefficientoperation.
Summingupthesituation,businessjournaーistsJenniferReingoldand DanieIRoberts
(2013,p.186)specu-atedthat”the experimentnow underway willdetermine whether
Heinz will
become
a
newly
invigorated
embodimentofefficiency-orwhether3G will
takethecultofcostcuttingsofarthatitchokesoffHeinz’sabilitytoinnovateand make
theproductsthathave madelta marketleaderforalmostacenturyandahaーf.
”
ln2015,Heinzandthefoodindust~ giantKra代announceda mergerthatwouldcreate
anentitywithanannualrevenueof$28bi=ion,thethirdlargestfoodcompanyintheUnited
Statesandthefi代hーargestintheworld.Annualcostsavingsof$1.5bilーionweree×pected.
The mergerwasfolloWedbymorecostcutting.However,lessattention waspaidto
changingcustomerpreferences,suchasforhealthyorganicfoodinsteadofprocessed
cheeseandーunch meat.Marginswerealsocutbysupermarketpurchasingstrategies(La
Monica,2019).ーnanattempttogrowfurther,KraftHeinz madeanofferof$143bi-lion
forUnileverin2017一buttheofferwasrejected.FurthercostcuttingatKraftHeinzfailed,
leadingtofallingsales,falling operating
income,andafallingshare
price.Unileve
in
contrast,wascomparative-ysuccessful.Cox(2019)said,
“Howthetableshaveturned.
TheCheezWhizgianthas melteddownslnceofferingtobuyUnilever:itsUS$40bi=ion
marketvalueisnowjustaquarterofitserstwhileprey.Uniーever,meanwhile,hasblos
somedinto aUs$155billion behemothぞ By2018,KraftHeinz was makinglosses,the
sharepricehadfa=enby60percentinovertwoyears,andthesecuritiesandExchange
Commission wasinvestigatingitsaccountingpractices.
Findonyou77ube,
”VVarrenBuffettonWhatheplanstodowithhisKraftHeinzsharesand3GCaPital”
(2019,8:31minutes).
348
ChaPterlO
C/70′7geルのmge′77emRezspedか弧
Cose sou「Ces
Carey,D.,Du]maine,B,,andUseem,M,2019,CE0saresuddenlyhavingachangeofheartabout
whattheircompaniesshouldstand危r-andthediverging危tesof2 majorcorporationsshow
why.β”s′′7ess万難′der,SePtember6,https://www,bus血ess血sider,com.au/ba代-he血斧unilever
ceo‐investments‐economy.
Co R.2019.Unilevercan’thelpbutmullaKra代Pounce,Rez′定裕,March8,https://www.reuters,
com/article/us‐kra貴-heinz‐unileverbrea頭ngview,
Kell,j,2017.Big危odisgoingtogetevenbigger,恥mme,March15,175(4):11‐12,
La Monica,P,R,2019.Whatwentwrongat]KraftHeinz?C靴wβ“sZ′?盗品February22,httPs://
edition,cnn,com/2019/02/22/血vesting/kra作hemz‐stockstrategy/index,htロロ.
Reingold,1,and Roberts,D,2013,SqueezingHeinz,恥“”′2e(october28):184-92,https://www.
免rbes.com/sites/greatspecuiation/2015/03/30/analysis-ofthe‐虹a作heinz‐merger,
Additiona1
Reading
Balogun,J,,HOPeHailey,v,and Gusta篤son,S,2016,E尤P′のZ′?gszmzegZccあの増a4thed,
HarloW,Esse×:Pearson.VVide-rangingtheoreticalandPracticalte×tonchange manage-
ment,advocatingacontingentaPProachthattailorschangeimplementationtothecon‐
text,basedonthe”changekaleidoscope
”tool,
1)awson,P,,and 山口drioPoulos,C,2017.み名α打αgZ′7gc力α刀ge,creα”vめノα′7d!′7刀oyのZo′?.
3rded,London:SagePublications,AcomPrehensiveandclearlyexplainedaccountofa
processualpersPectiveonchangeandinnovation,theoreticalandpractical,
Kotter,J.P.2012,Accelerate!嵐αryαm β“sZ〃essRel′!鍬 0(11):4 52.ExP1ainshowto
drivestrategic,transfbrmationalchange withoutdisruptingdailyoperations.Thisisa
developmentofKotter’soriginaleight-stage modeloftransft)rInationalchange,
Roundup
DoyoU W0rkwith
a
”one
SiZefitS
ar
aPProachtochange
management?下o
what
extent
do
you
adapt
your
ap-
proachtothesca1e
andtiming
ofthe
change,staffreadiness,yourownrela‐
tivepower,andothercontextfeatures
identifiedinthischapter?
Howcapableareyouinadoptingmore
thanonechangeimage?Areyoumore
comfortablewithatop‐downora
bot-
tom-up
approach-orsomewhere
in
between?Doyouneedtodevelopany
particularskillstoachievegreaterflexi‐
bi-ity(assumingyoubelievethatflexi‐
bi-itywillgiveyouanadvantage)?
lsthere
a
dominantchange
approach
inyourorganization?lfso,howappro-
priateisit?VVhatwouldyouneedtodo
to
modify
or
replace that
dominant
approach?
Howdoyouhandーethemanydifferent
changeinitiativesthatareunfoldingin
ourorganization
orbusiness
unitata
giventime--whentheseareallatdiffer」
ent
stages?
ls
this
a
problem?
lf
not,
whynot?lfitis,whatisyourpreferred
solution?lfpossible,shareanddiscuss
your
responses
to
this
question
and
the
others
in
this
”reflection” with
co=eagues.
ChaPterlO
C方q′7geル必α′mge′77e′7rReなPeα′、ぞs
349
HereisashortsummaryofthekeyPointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丘omthischaPter,
inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:
圏国璽欄
N[a頭ngchange魚ilisrelativelyeasy;thereare manythingsthatonecan do,and not
do,to
achievethatresult,J‐ohn Kotteridentifies
eight main 魚ilure 魚ctors:lack of
urgency,nosupportivecoalition,novlslon,Poorcommunication,obstaclestochange
notremoved,no“wins”orachievementstocelebrate,declaringvictorytoosoon,and
notanchoring orembeddingthe
changes. Lackofcommunicationis
a Particularly
significantcauseofchange態ilure.
Assess物eszre〃gz超 α〃〆助川『α”の7sげc庇cた猿なお“?mmgZ〃g所α〃解 明先”かのノ.
v▽eintroducedthreecheck1istsor”recipes
“おor managingchange:
Boston ConsultingG‐rouP’sDICE modeI
Prosci’sADKAR modeI
Stoutedsevidence‐based model
onestrength oftheseapproachesisthattheyprovideclarityandsimP1icityinanarea
thatcanbecomP1exanduntidy.APotherstrengthisthatdi掻erentcheckliststendtoo鎖er
muchthesameadvice,whichisreassuring,onelimitationisthatthesechec虹iststend
tolackanytheoreticalunderp山ning,relyingo賃enonanargumentthatsoundslike,
‘‘This
worked あrus,soitshouldwork 危ryou,
”From aPractitionerperspective,anotherlim-
itationisthatthesearegeneric“high‐levelguides
“andnotdetailed“bestpractice
”road
maPs.Thechange managerisle貴withthechallengingtaskoftranslatingthisguidance
intoachangeimplementationplanthatwinfittheorganizationalcircumstances.These
chec撞stsdonotsubstitute 危rlocalknowledge,in危rmedjudgment,andcreativity,
“/ediscussedthequestionconcerningwhentouseeachofthesechecklists.Asthey
tendto o都erbroadlysimilaradvice,itmaynot matter. However,theyencouragediE
元rent
emPhases一DICE
ontakingaction based
on
scoringtheissues,ADKAR on
individualperceptions,and Stouten on 危1lowingtheresearchevidencebase.A more
appropriatequestion,perhaps,ishowtousethesechecklists.Theyshouldbeseenas
high‐levelguidesandnotdetailedroad maPs,andtheywillbehelpfulaslongasthey
arenotusedinatightlyprescriptive manner,buttotriggerdiscussion,diagnosis,and
planning.ltmaybeusefulinsomesettingstoapply morethanonemodeltothesame
changeprogram.Thesecommentsconcerning when andhowto usechange manage‐
mentguidelinesaPP1ytoallthe modelsand官ameworksinthischapter.
Ey叫卿だ 功eqdl耽溺αgesqfszqge′??ode!sげ 効α′?gem解明emem
v~′eintroducedthreestage modelsofchange management:
Lewidsthree‐stage modeI
Kotter’seight‐stagemodeI
McKinsey5A modeI
StagemodelscomplementachecklistaPproachbyemphasizinghowchangeun丘)ldsand
developsovertime,ma紅ngchanging demandsonthechange managerand onthose
who are a”ヨected,ateach stage,A”though changerarely developsina neatandtidy
manner, aPProaching
the
process
in
this
way
encourages
the change
manager
to
350
ChaPterlO
C77α′?ge脳叱mqg1e′77g′7rRe若sPeα′1’es
anticiPateandPrePare貴)rPossiblefutureProblems.ltalsoencouragesa化)cusonthe
”
PiPeline
’’ofchange benefits
and on‐how ”leakage
“
duringtheProcesscanleadto
disaPPointingoutcomes.ltmayalsobeh‐eIPfultoconsideramoreextendedtimeline,
consideringhow pasteVentscou1dinnuencecurrentproPOSa1s,andhow changesWi11
besustained,andeventuallydecay,intothe和hire,
翻顧鰹瞳園 Assess物e豹eormcq/鯛〆メαα!m/1’α卿e ザ 街eprocess〃gな〆αれ’eo′?c加〃ge.
TheProcesspersPectivearguesthattheoutcomesofchangeareshapedbythecombina-
tion andinteractionofanumberof態ctorsovertmlein agivencontext,Thosefactors
includetheconteぬ andsubstanceofthechange,theinIP1ementationprocess,andalso
theinternalandexternalorganizationpo互tics.onestrengthoftheprocessPerspectiveis
thatitemPhasizestheroleoforganizationalpo五tics,w垣chisoftenoverlookedorregarded
as marginalbyotheraPProaches.ThePracticaladvicenowing丘omthisPerspectiveis
s加1江artothatProvidedbychecな誼stsandstage mode1s:P1an,tram,com.numcate,1earn
丑om mdstakes,adaPttocircumstances.However,wheresomechangemanagementadvice
recommends“dothis,
“theprocessPersPectiVesays,
“beawareofthis,
“leav節gthechange
managerWiththetaskofreach血gin云ormedjudgmentswithregardtoaPpropriateaction・
TheProcessPerspectivehigmightsthecomP1exityandPo互ticizednamreofchangeand
seeschangeasaprocesswithaPast,Present,and 鏡ture,ratherthanasastaticort無]e-
boundedevent. However,there are dangersinthisPersPective,in Presentingchangeas
overcomP1exandunumanageable,inplacingthefbcusonconteぬattheexPenseof血dividual
andteam contributions,and加the角cusonawarenessratherthancleard江rection.
優麗園園園 う“〆印可mば α“‘〆α姿のか の〃ZZ′7ge′?リノ のPro僻みes『ocあの?ge/”α′?αgemem
V~ZePresented化)urcontingencyaPProaches:
”/heretostart?
Changeleadershipstylescontinuum
Stace‐DunPhycontingency matriX
ChangekaleidoscoPe
ContingencyaPProachesarguethatchangeimplementationshouldtakeinto account
theattributesoftheorganizationalcontextconcerned.However,theseapProachesdif
発rwithregardtothecontingencies-thekey 態ctors-thatthechange managerneeds
toconsider.Forexample,
“wheretostart?”arguesthatchangeshouldbeginwiththe
“
pivotalroles,
” wherechangeswillhavethebiggestimPactonthebehaviorandPer-
あrmancethatisofconcern.Those“
pivotalroles”wilIVary丘om onechangeinitiative
toanother.Thestylescontinuum suggestschoosingachangeleadershipstylebasedon
considerationsofavailabletime,useofavailableexPertise,andstaffcommitment.A
dictatorialaPproachto managementingeneral,andtochange managementinpartic-
ular,Probablyrunscounterto most managementbelie危,However,thestace‐Dunphy
contingencyframeworksuggeststhatwherechangeisVital,timeisshort,andconsensus
isunlikely,adictatorialaPProachismorelikelytobeeぼectiveinachievingmanagement
outcomes.ThemostcomP1exofthesemodels,thechangekaleidoscoPe,identi行eseight
setsofcontext魚ctorsands広setsofchangeimplementationdesignoPtions.Thedesign
oPtions,thisaPProachargues,needtoreflectthecontextdiagnosls,
lt mayseem obviousto arguethat“the bestaPproach
” dePendsonthecontext,
However,thisideaof“fitting
”changetothesettingiseasiertoexP1ainintheorythan
351Chapterlo C乃α′?ge崩超″”ge′“e′7rReなPed′yes
toputintopractice.Detaileddiagnosisofthecontexttakestimeandrequiresconsid‐
erablelocalknowledgeandinsight.A contingencyapproach also demandsnLeゴロibility
instyle官om changeleadersand managerswho mLayinso]meinstancesberequiredto
mーoveoutoftheir”com化)rtzones,
”andinconsistentbehaviormayweaken management
credibility.ourtwofinalquestionsare:lsever賃hingcontingentinthisarea?Arethere
nouniversalsinorganizationalchange?
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Vviedner,R.,Barrett, 4,,and 。born,E,2017.Theemergenceofchangeinunexpected
places:Resourcingacrossorganizationalpracticesinstrategicchange,4mde′仰 げ▲‘毎〃-
αge′72e′7Zゐ乙mm/60(3):823一54.
Sourceofopeningquote丘om AynRand:https://blog.hubsPot,com/sales/great-免malo
leader‐quotes
Chapteropeningsilhouettecredit:FunKey Factory/Shutterstock
Manag
ing
organ菌zation副
Chang
e
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人4zANAGINGORGANIZATIONALCHANGE:A MULTIPLEPERSPECTNrESAPPROACH,
FOURTHEDITION
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mheducation,con・/highered
DEDIICATIION$
From l
an
下O Dianne, Matthew,and Michelle
From Richard
下o Jill,Nick,and AIーy
From
DaVid
下o Lesley With1oVe-andthanks
A‘know彪dgments
A number ofpeople havecontributedtothisedition,and we owethem alladebt
of
gratitude,including Francis Adeola, UniversityofNew orleans; Terrence R‐,Bishop,
Northern
lllino
is
University; Frederick
Brock〕m‐eier, Northern
Kentucky
University;
LesleyBu‐chanan;andJames Cornwell,U,S.MilitaryAcademy,晒/emustalsothankthe
manychange managers-to
o
manyto name-with whom we
have
exploredthe
issues
addressedinthisbook,あrtheirtime,theirinsights,andtheirwillingnesstosharetheir
experlenceswithus.
IV
Chapter
Purpose and Visi
on
Learning
objectives
Bytheendofthischapteryoushouldbeableto:
璽璽圃
Exp-aintheargumentsforandagainsttheconceptsofpurpose{ormission}
andvisionandhow approachestotheseissuesdependontheimageof
managingorganizationalchange.
圏鞭国璽コ
Exp-aintheva-ueofac1earorganizationa-purposeormissionstatement
・
圏麗圏圏
1dentifythecharacteristicsofeffectivev-s1ons.
璽璽 園
App-ydifferentmethodsandprocessesfordeve1opingv-s1ons・
顔圏圏
Exp1ainwhysomev1s1onsfai1.
璽璽圏
Exp-ainthecontributionofpurposeandvisiontoorganiZationa1change・
”アわβ′soneWyeor.AneW
beg′“n′ng.And「わ′ngsw′/′
Chonge.
”
Taylorswift,singer
175
176
chapter
6
乃〃posed′7メメお′の?
r璽震璽麗圃
Missions and Visions:FundamentalorFads?
Thereisconfusion betWeentheterms“7Zsszo′7,Pz!′Pose,and 諺鱒○′?.ハ4issionsandvisions
aredifficulttodisentangle,FormLostcommentators,missionstatementsconcerntheover-
ridingpz〃poseoftheorganization(Quinnand Thakor,2018).Broadly,theyanswerthe
question,
“粥?の ろ那′′?essα〆e we“″“Vision,in contrast,concernsthe方′zz′〆eszα『e
ofthe
organization,
anaspirationthatcan mobilizetheenergyandpassionofthe
organization
’s
memLbers,Visionsanswerthequestion, iン77餌dowe wの営 め αc膚eye As missionstate-
mentsconcerntheorganization
’spurpose,theyareaction‐oriented,Visions,incontrast,
describeanultimategoal(Kolowich,2019):
ルメなsZo′7:VVarbyparker
のsわ′?:A1zheimer’s Association
Thesearethedef=mtionsofmission(purpose)andvision(鏡tureaspiration)thatwewill
useintmschapter,u!ewmusetheterms′77!ss!の?and駆″poseto meanthesamethゴmg,Bot
h
印dssionsandvisionscandriveorganizationalchange,Thechangemanagementperspectives
exploredinchapterloemphasizetheimportanceofclearmissionsand meaningfulvisions;
weneedtokllow whatbusmess wearein,andifwedodtkllow whereweareheaded,
it
doesn’t matterwhichdirection wetake.Butthereisdebateover whethertheconceptsof
missionandvisionare飽ndamentaltoeぼectivechange,orwhetherthesearejust魚ds-items
withwhichtodecoratethereceptionareaatthe
company
heado甘iceandthemside丘ont
pageofannualreports.lfyoudoaGooglesearch あr“missionandvisionstatements,
”most
超tswiutakeyouto managementconsultancysiteso爺eringadviceon howto writethese
statements;te唖山gthem apartcanbechallenging-andconfusing.
Aswewinsee,missionsandvisionscanbelinkedtostrategyandcompetitiveadvan‐
tage,enhancingorganizationalperformanceandsustaininggrowth.C1earmissionsshould
enable boardsto determine how wellorganizationalleadersare per恥rmingand
which
new businessopportunitiestopursue,Visionsshouldhelpstaffidentiル withtheorgani‐
zationandinspirethe motivationtoachievepersonalandcorporateo切ectives,Thepro‐
cessofdetermining missionsand visionscan enhancetheseIEesteem ofthose who
are
involved,becausetheycanseetheoutcomesoftheire”ヨorts.
Aconfused mission andalackofvision,ontheotherhand,canbelinkedtoorgani‐
zationaldeclineand魚ilure,Theabsenceofclearandcompelling missionandvision may
Tooぼerdesignereyewearatarevolutionarypr.ce,
whileleadingtheway貴)rsociallyconscious
businesses
AworldwithoutAJzheimer’sdisease
lt’shardtoimaginehowyouremployeescanperform
iftheydon’t
underst
and
your
company’s
purpose,
Howcantheycometoworkeverydayreadytofur-
therthebusinessiftheydon’tknowwhatyourorga-
nizationistryingtoaccomplishandhowtheirjobs
supportthosegoals? etinarecentsurveyof
more
than
540
employees worldwide
conducted
by
pwc,sstrategyconsultingbusiness,strategy&,only
28
percent
of
respondentsreported
feelin9
fully
motivated,passionate,orexcitedabouttheirjobs.
(B1ountandLeinwald,2019,p,134)
connectedtotheircompany’spurpose,Just39per-
centsaidtheycouldcーear-yseethevaーuetheycreate,
amere22percentagreedthattheirjobsa-lowthern
tofullyleveragetheirstrengths,andonly34percent
thoughttheystronglycontributetotheircompany’s
success.Morethan
ha-fweren’teven“somewhat“
Chapter6
Pmposeの7d″おゎ“ 177
e×P1ainwhysomecompanies魚iltoexploittheircorecomPetenciesdespitehaving
access
toadequateresources.Businessstrategieslackinginpurposeandvisionmay魚iltoident
i
whenorganizationalchangeandafreshdirectionarerequired.Lackofanadequatepro-
cessあrtranslatingsharedvisionintocollectiveaction maybeassociated withthe態ilure
toproducetrans云ormationalorganizationalchange.
Theconceptofvisionisparticularlypowerful.However,itremainscontroversialand
invitescynlc・sm wheneveryorganizationhasthesameblandvisionthatincludes“excel‐
lence,
”“corporateresponsibility,
”“empowered employees,
”and “delighted customers.
”
Aユthoughthereisalotofadviceonhowtodevelop missionsandvisions,thereislittle
or no
consensus
on
e爺ective
approaches.Some
commentators
have arguedth
atthe
preoccupation withthesestatementshas meantthatthetermshavebeen overusedand
trivializedandareindangeroflosinganyvaluetheymayhavehad.
Debatesaroundde賃nitionandsubstancedonotthemselvesinvalidatetheseconcepts.
Thechallenge危rthechange manageristoavoidabstractstatementsthatgivelittledetail.
ontheotherhand,statementsthat危cusin‐depthonshort‐term goalsarealsooflimited
va1ue,\八′eneedto workbetweenthesetwoextremes,Theseargumentspointtoadeeper
understanding;Thelinksbetween mission,vlslon,and changedependontheimageof
change managementinuse・Table
6.・summarizesthe di爺erentunderstandingsofeach
TABLE6コ
Changeハ4anagementlmage,ハ4isSi0n,aIIdvisi○n:LinksandFocus
lmage
Missions/、′isions‐ChangeLink
FocusingAttentionon
D′redo「
Missions/visionsareessential
to
Thereisaneedforclearmissions/visionsto
drive
successfulchangeand must
be
changelinkedtostrategyandgoaーs.
articulatedatanearlystageby
Anal〆icalandbenchmarkingprocessesshouldbeused.
ーeaders.
Contextaffectstheimpactof
missions/visions.
Thereisatop‐downresponsibilitytote=/se=the
missions/visions.
~ov勾oror
Missions/visionsareimportantbut
Missions/visionsaretheproductofdebate.
canbecompromisedbycompetin9
Thechangemanagerhastohandle“mission/
vision
viewsofdifferentstakehoーders.
collision”whencompetinggroupsdisagree.
Core『Qker
Externa-forcesshapethe
change
Visionaryorcharismaticleadershaveーimitedimp
act
process,and missions/visionsrarely
whenmissions/visionsarenotrelatedtotheevents
haveamajorinfluence.
drivenbythoseexternalforces.
Cooch
Missions/visionsemergethroughthe
Missions/Visionsemergethroughconsultationand
leader’sfacilitationski=s,shaping
co‐creation.
agendasanddesiredfutures.
Missions/visionswi=failwithoutparticipation.
′nferprefer
Missions/Visionsarticulatethecore
Missions/Visionsaredevelopedintuitively
through
valuesandideologythatunderp
in
imageryandimagination,usingframing,scripting,and
theor
anization’sidentit.
sta
in
techni
ues.
178
Chapter6
P”′poseの74“s′。〃
tP0age.Y『oucan usethistabletoidentiぜyhow differentimages 化)cusattention on
some
issuesandapproaches,andnotothers.
lnthischapter,wewillfirstexploretheconceptoforganizationalmissionorpurpose,
whatthismeans,howthisdrivesorganizationalchange,thebene行tsofbeinga
“
purpose-
driven”organization,andthelanguageinwhich mission orpurposestatementsarebest
expressed.V▽ewnlthenturntotheconceptofVision,which mayhaveeven moreimpact
asadriverofchange,Thisdependsonthecontentofthevisionandtheprocessthrough
whichthevisionisdeveloped. Wethenidenti whyvisionscan 魚ilto producetheir
desj崖redeがects,Finally,we化)cusonthreecontroversialissuesconcerningtherole
ofvision
inorganizationalchange,F”st,doesvisioninitiateanddrivechange,ordoesit
emerge
as
changeun賞)lds?
Second,doesvision
help
orhinder
change?
Third,isvision best
understood asan attributeofheroicleadersorofheroic organizations?Theperceptive
readerwinnotethatthesedebatesa1soapp1yto missions,butwehaveavoideddup1icating
thisdiscusslon・
国璽霊園
Mission:VVhy AreVVe Here?
柵1yl)。 W,-,C0・・I〔,tqwo嶋滋三きデー謡
ASmuchaSyoumaytrytomotiVateemployeeSwith
workers.Andthemoreyoualigntherightta-ent,op-
slogansorextrinsicrewards,youwon’tachieveex‐
erating
model,andfinancia-
resourcestosupport
Cellence
if
your
people
don’tknow whytheyare
yourpurpose,thebetterableemployeeswillbeto
comingtoworkeverydayatyourfirm.Theclearer
de-iveronit.Purposeisthekeytomotivation--and
youcahbeaboutwhatValueyourCompanycreates
motivatedemp-oyeesarethekeytorealizingyour
andforwhom,thegreateryourabilitytoinspireyour
purpose.(E;lountandLeinwand,2019,p.139)
Manyemployees-notjustMinennialsand GenZーWanttoWork あrorganizationswhose
missionsandbusinessphilosophiesresonatewiththemintenectuallyandemotionany(see
chapter3).Seniormanagementneedstocommunicatewhythecompanyeぬsts(whatvalue
itcreatesand 危rwhom)ina waythatiseasy あremployeestounderstand.But
mission
orPurPosestatements o貴entalkabout”beingthe comPanyofchoice”or”maxl1nlz・ng
shareholdervalue,
“Thesevaguestatementsdonotsaywhattheorganizationdoesor
who
itscustomersare.Theconfusionbetween mission,purpose,andvisioncan1eadcompanies
to produceseveraldifferentstatements,causingfurtherconfusion, However,a powerful
statementofPurposemeetstwoo団ectives:clearlyarticulatingstrategicgoalsandincreasing
workaorce motivation,B1ountand Leinwand(2019,P,134)arguethat,to achievethose
o回ectives,purposestatementshavetoanswerquestionssuchas,
“粥IQZZSJノ似preαso′?ルr
ex加増p””解?α『1’m乙!eqr琴似gzliz′?顔貌‘だ乙′srome′rand“卿7)ぼり肌′r舟′77m7御′のcのαふた
1K」EAiso賃encitedasacompanywithaclear messageaboutitspurpose.ltpromises
“tocreateabettereverydaylif℃貢)rthemanypeoP1e
“一asdistinct丘omthea]ばluent発w-by
“○爺eringawiderangeofwell‐designed,functionalhomefurnishingproductsatPrices
so
low thatas manypeople aspossiblewi旦beableto
a節ordthem.
’’ Henryschein,who
Chapter6 Pmposeの7メメデ瀞。“
179
ProvidesProductsandservices食)rmedicalanddentaIPractitioners,alsohasawell‐defined
purpose:‘Toprovideinnovative,integratedhealthcareproductsandservices,andtobe
trusted
adVisors
and
consultantsto
ourcustomers,enablingthem to deliverthebest
qualitypatientcareandenhancetheirpractice managemente]日目ciencyandpro負tability“
(B1ountandLeinwand,2〇19,P.136)・B1ountandLeinwa1dsuggestthatboardmembers
shouldbeasldngthe managementteamthese
questions:
lfweweretoPutourpurposestatementalongsideacomPetitor
’s,couldouremP1oyees
identi~ whichone wasours?
lfweaskedouremployees,how manycouldsay whatourpurPoseis?
DoouremP1oyeeshavetheresourcesrequiredtodeliveronourpromisestocustomers?
Chobani,America’sleadin9Greekyogurtbrand,
has
developeda”purposefu-organizationcu-ture.
”
The
company’s
purpose
is
”betterfoodformore
peo-
p-e/’VVorkers
in
Chobani’s
New
Vorkfactory
are
paid
doub-e
the
m-nlmum
wage,and
they
own
lo
percent
of
thelcompany
through
its
equity-
sharingscheme.Chobani’sfounder,HamdiU1ukaya,
believes
that
peopletake
prideand
ownership
in
thebrandandaremorehighーymotivatedwhenthey
haveastakeinthecompany.Thebrandalsofunds
start-ups
in
health
and
wellness
through
the
Chobani
Foundation
and
the
Chobani
lncubator.
Chobania-sohiresandsupportsrefugees,incoali-
tionwith80companieswiththesameaim.U1ukaya
says,
”Theminutetheygotthejob,tharstheminute
theystoppedbeingrefugees.
“Mostemployeesto-
daywantmorethanawage.Milーennialsinparticular
wantto
work
fororganizations
like
Chobani
that
makea meaningfufcontributiontosociety(based
onMainwairing,2018).
ResearchintoraPidlygrowingcompaniesinA立nerica,Europe,andlndiabyM【alnight
etal.(2019,P.72)suggeststhatpurposeisadriveroforganizationalgrowth(alongwith
creatingnew markets,servingbroaderstakeholderneeds,and“changingtherulesofthe
gam ).PurPoseisnotjustadecorativestatement;itcangeneratesustainedProfi
table
gro~砿h.They note(p.77)that“acompellingpurPoseclari賃es whatacompanystands
云or,Providesanimpetus化)raction,andisaspirationaL
”
ForMalnightetal.(2019),purposeP1aystwostrategicroles-bothpotentialdriversof
change.Thefirstroleisだα所用′?gz庇 〆のけ胆力〆α.lnsteadofcomPeting危rashareofa
defined market,high-groWthcomPanies,guidedbytheirpurpose,look化)rother,broader
marketopportunities.Malnightetal.(2019,P.74)citethecontrastbetweenNestlePurina
Petcare,theleadingcompanyinNorthAI1nerica,andハイ【arsPetcare,thegloballeaderin
t
his
sector.The purposeofPurinais“betterwithPets.
” Petcare’spurposeis“a better
world化)rpets.
“Purinahascontinuedto化)cusonpetfbods.ButM[arsPetcarehasdiveF
sifiedinto
pethealth,byinvestingin veterinaryservices,andisnow thelargestand
魚stest‐growingbusinessdivisionin凸darslncorPorated.Thischange workedbecausethe
trans免rmation wasconsistentwiththecompany
’scorepurpose.
Find on 質o明記のe,
”ChobaniCEO HamdiU1ukaya on how businessescanstep upforrefugees“(2019,
7minutes).
180
Chapter6
月′′poseα〃α巧s′o′7
Thesecondroleisrどぶ方αP!′7g 豹el’α/”eProP餌!Zわ′7.VVhencomPetitionerodes margins,
mostorganizationslook食)rinnovativenew Products,services,andbusiness models,This
can generate
short‐term gains,butthese
arelimitedbyeXisting market
structures-the
“ecosystem”ーin
which
an
organization
operates, A purpose‐driven aPProach helpsthe
organizationgrowintonewecosystems.Malnightetal.(2019)suggestthattherearethree
waysinwhichthisgrowth canhaPPen,byresPondingtotrends,buildingontrust,and
“化)cusingonPainpoints
“:
1,人影sPo′74″7grorだ′7ぬ,SecuritasAB,aSwedishsecuritycompany,o爺eredatraditional
securityguard service,Thechanging natureofrisk,risinglaborcosts,and cheaper
technology,however,encouragedthe comPanytostartusing electronic
securitysys-
tems,o爺ering enhanced protection usingremotesurveillance,withdigitalrePorting.
Goingbeyondreactive
security,in
2018
the
companystartedto
develop predictive
securitysystems,whichcontinuedtobuildontheircorepurPose,withstrongerclient
relationsandhighermargins,
2,β駆艦!′7gの7勿‘立Togrowsalesofvehiclefinancmginlargelyuninsuredruralmarkets,
Mahindra Financehadtobuildtrustwithnew customers.Thisinvolved determining
thecreditworthinessofPoor,initeratecustomers,whohadnobankaccountsorcollat-
eral.Thisalso meantsettingup branchesinnewlocationsandrecruiting
employees
whocouldsPeaklocaldialectsand work ontheirowninitiative.Thecompany
also
hadtoredesignloans,customeraPprovals,andrePaymentterms,and organizecash
rePayments, Havingbuilttrustwiththosecustomers, MahindrastartedtosenequiP‐
ment,li篤,andhealthinsuranceto 態rmers,in a marketwhereinsurancePenetration
isbelow4Percent.Thisexpansion wasdrivenbythecompanゾspurpose,whichisto
improve
customers’lives,caPturedbythe word
”Rise.
“ Thechiefexecutive,Anand
Mahindrahopesthatthe
company
’s purpose “willinspire
employees
to acceptno
limits,thinkalternatively,anddrivepositivechangげ(Malnight,2019,P,75).
3. 凡α〃sZ′7g の7Pの′7POZ′?な.lnsearchofother waysto“create abetterworldfbrpets,
“
M【ars Petcare hasdeveloped waysofdiagnosingandPreventingPethealthproblems.
TheyboughtacomPanythatmadesmartco11ars云oractivity monitoringand1ocation
trac亙ng Fitbitあrdogs
”),Combiningdataanal賃ics,machinelearning,andveterinary
expertise,thisapproachidentineschangesinbehaviorthatcouldidentiルhealthprob-
1ems,1eadingtoear1ytreatment.
Malnightetal.(2019,p.77)suggestthattherearetwoapProachestodefiningcorPo‐
ratepurpose:
・ Arどかoこめec館形aPProachhasaninternal化)cusandisbasedontheorganization
’scur
rent
reason長)rbeing,basedonitspasthistory,
“VVherehavewecome丘om?Howdid
we
gethere?”
o
A 〃〆。sped/yeaPproachtakesan externalperspectiveandredefinestheorganization
’s
purPosebyloo超LngForward.
“VVhichtrendsal爺ectourbusiness?VVhatnew oPportuni‐
tieslieahead?”
TheyidentifythreebeneEitstotheorganizationofclarifyingandcommunicatingpur‐
pose,F立st,aclearpurPosecanunifytheorganizationandheIPsta甘tounderstandthe
directionthattheorganizationista]hng.Second,purposeismotivating.Asalreadynoted,
ChaPter6
Pz〃P卵ed′7d鋒sわ′7
181
e]ぽIp1oyeesingeneral,andム4i1lennialsinparticular,expecttheir worktoContributetoa
highercause-apurpose-whichcanalsoincreasethetrustthatcustomers,suppliers,and
otherstakeholdersplacein
theorganization.
Third,clarityofpurposecanhaveasignif
icanti・ローpactonorganizationalchangeandperlt)rl・lance.
Researchbythe managementconsultingfirm Deloitte(0’Brienetal.,2019,pp.7-8)
suggeststhatpurpose‐drivencompanieshave:
strongergainsin marketshare
higherproductivityandgroMhrates
a moresatisfied work云orce
highercustomersatislaction
30percenthigherlevelsofinnovationthantheircompetitors
40percenthigherlevelsofemployeeretentionthantheircompetitors
ln2019,ourconsumersurveyshowedthatprice
and
quaーity
remain
the biggestfactors
drivin9
customerdecisions,However,manyofthesame
respondents(55
percent) believe
businesses
today
have
a
greater
responsibi1ity
to
act
on
issues
relatedtotheirpurpose.Thosefai-ingto
dosoriskbeingdisp-acedbypurpose‐drivendis-
ruptors.Forexamp-e,Uni-ever’s28“sustainable
living“brands(i.e.,brandsfocusedonreducin9
Unilever’senvironmenta-footprintandincreaslng
socialimpact)suchasDove,Vaseline,andLipton
delivered
75
percentofthe
company’sgrowth
andgrew69percentfasteronavera9ethanthe
restofitsbusinessesin2018(comparedto46per‐
centin2017).Soap,petroleumjelly,andteaare
eve~dayhousehoーdessentials,butbypromoting
sustainabーeliving,theseproductsbecamedi什er-
entiatedastheyembodythecompany’spurpose.
(びBrieneta-り2019,p,8)
The Language of Mission Statements
Thelanguagethatanorganizationusestocommunicateitspurposeormissioncana節ect
employeecommitmentandperlt)rmance.Butaswehavediscussed, manyorganizations
use mission statementsthatuse abstract,conceptualterms. Murphy and C1ark(2016)
notethatorganizationstendtousethesamecorporate‐speak:
“striving貴)rexcellence”or
”deliveringcutting‐edgeservicesinaglobalmarketplace.
“Theyciteabankwhose mission
stateinentreads:
ThemissionofPeoP1e’sCommunityBankistobethePre発rredindePendentcommunity
bankwhich meetsandexceedstheexpectationsofourcustomersandcommunities,bypro‐
vidingexcellentcustomerservice,productsandvalue,whilemaximizingshareholderreturn,
alongwith maintainingthewell‐beingandsatisfactionofouremployees.
Find
on
OU力ube,
”Putpurpose
atthe
coreofstrategy.一interview with
IMD ProfessorThomas
Malnighで
(2019,3minutes).
182
chapter6
P乙″poseの7d““。〃
TABLE
6.2
TheLanguageof工Mission
statements
StatementsUsinglmagery
StatementsUsingAbstractions
下oPutjoyinkidgheartsandasmileonParentざfaces
下obetheWorldleaderin,=
下odetectaPreviouslyundetectabletumorinsidea
下obetherecognizedPerformanceleaderin.“
humanlungbyaskingaPatienttobreatheintoa
下obethemosttrustedProviderof.”
deviceーikeours
下obea-ead-ngcomPanydeliveringimProved
下o makePeoP1e-augh shareholderValue
下。ensurethesecurityandfreedomofournation
from
createabettereverydaylifeformanyPeOP1e
underseatoouterspace,andincybersPace
下ocreatelong-termValueforCustomers,
W′ebelieveinlongCandlelitbaths,fillingtheworld
shareho-ders,emP-oyees
withPerfume
下ocreateabetterfutureeVeryday
Acomputeroneverydeskandinevery
home
Fora missionstatementtoencourageas方αredsenseofPurPose,ithasto useViVid
concreteimagerythatpeoplecanvisualizeandinterpretinthesameway,Theycitethe
missionstatementofa manu魚cturerofwearableroboticprostheticdevices:
0neday,ourrobotice×oskeletonswillbeaviableandaccessibleoPtion食)rthemー日lionsof
wheelchairuserswhowanttheoptiontostandupandwalk.
Table6.2showsexamplesofrealcompany missionstatements,usingconcreteimagery
andabstractions・V▽hichwillbemoree”当ectiveincreatingasharedsenseoftheorgani-
zation’spurpose?
Theevidencesuggeststhatmanycompaniesignorethisadvice,lntheirannualreview
ofcorporategovernance,theUKFinanciaIReportingCouncil(2020,p.9)concludedthat:
Too manycomーPaniessubstitutedwhataPPearedtobeasloganormarketingline文)rtheir
purposeorrestrictedittoachievingshareholderreturnsandprofit,Reportinginthese
wayssuggeststhatmanycompanieshavenotFullyconsideredpurposeanditsimportance
inrelationtocultureandstrategy,norhavetheysun「icientlyconsideredtheviewsofstake-
holdersintheifPurposestatements.Thebestreportingdescribedpurposebyconsider無git
alongsidecultureandstrategyinawaythatdemonstratedthecompanyhadthoughtab
out
purposeel”Fectively.
Gabrie=eBosche(2019)offersthefollowingexam‐
plesof“best“and”worst”missionstatementsfrom
leadingAmericanorganizations,Doyouagreewith
herassessment,ornot?W′hy?
the Best
AmaZ0n 下obeEarth’smostcustomer‐centric
company,
where
customers
can
find
and discover
anything
they
mightwantto
buyonline,and
en-
deavorsto
offerits
customersthe
lowestpossibleprices
下obecomethenumberlfashiondes-
tinationfor20‐somethingsglobally
下oimproveourcustomers’financial
lives
so
profound1y,they
couldn’t
imaginegoingbacktotheoldway
Chapter6
乃″poseの7dの嗣o′7
183
VVho1e
Foods
い′almart
American
RedCross
Southw「est
下heML{orsr
Disney
ourdeepestPurposeasanorgan1-
zationishelpingsupportthehealth,
well‐being, and healing
of
both
People一一customers, Team
Men・-
bers,andbusinessorganizationsin
general--andtheP1anet
VVesavepeoplemoneysotheycan
livebetter
下o
preVent
and
alleViate
human
sufferinginthefaceofemergencies
by mobi-izingthe
Powerofvo1un-
teersandthegenerosityofdonors
下oprovideauthentichosPitalityby
makingadifference
intheーivesof
thepeoplewetoucheveryday
下o
be
one
ofthe world’s
leadin9
Producers
and
providers
ofenter-
tainmentandinformation,usingits
Portfo-io
ofbrandstodifferentiate
itscontent,servicesandconsumer
Products
下obeacompanythatinspiresand
fulfiーlsyourcuriosity
Shapethefutureofthelnternetby
creating
unPrecedentedvalueand
oPPortunityforourcustomers,em‐
P1oyees,investors,and
ecosystem
Partners
The
Home
Depot
is
in
the
home
imProvementbusinessandourgoal
is
to
provide
the highest
level
of
service,the
broadestselection
of
ProductsandthemostcomPetitive
Prーces
下ocoーlect,Preserve,study,exhibit,
andstimulateapPreciationforand
advanceknowーedgeofworksofart
that
collectively represent
the
broadest spectrum
of
human
achievementatthehighestーevelof
quality,allintheserviceofthePub‐
licandinaccordancewiththehigh-
estprofessionalstandards
Home
Depot
*MuseumofModemArt,New ork.
璽璽璽劇Vision: W′here Are 凶′e Going?
Creatinga
unifyingvisionforanorganizationis
afundamenta-
skillforleaders.Asimple,bold,
inspirational
vision
can
feelalmost
magical:it
bringsPeoP1ethroughoutthecompanytogether
around
a
common
goaland
Provides
a
focaI
Point
for
developing
strategies
to achieve
a
betterfuture.(AshkenasandManville,2019,P,2)
The
evidence
Suggeststhate鎖ectivevIS1on
StatementS
have positive conSequenceS,but
what makesvisions“visionary
’iSnotclear.SomecommentatorsFocusontheContentof
vlslon
Statements. others
explorethecontextin which visionS
are used. Theroles
of
leadersinarticulatingv・SI。ns,andtheprocessbywhichvisionsaredeveloped,havealso
attractedattention.Here,wewillconsiderthecontentofvisions,includingtheirStyleand
otherattributeS.
Vision Attributes
Table6.3ShowsseveraldefinitionSoforganizati。nalvision.Aswediscussedearlier,most
ofthesedefinitionsre篤rtoafutureortoanidealtowhichorganizati。nalchangeShould
184
Chapter6
P”′posed′?〆“s′o′7
Definitions Sources
A1eade sstatementofadesired,long‐term
future
Kirkpatrick(2017,p‘87)
stateforanorganization
ーmageofan”idealfuturerltisaspirationaland
HainesetaL(2005,p.139)
idealistic,aguidingStarWithdreamlikequalities
Apictureofthefutureofourorganization
Austeretal.(2005,p,50)
Adetaileddescriptionofadesiredfuturethat
BelgardandRayner(2004,p.竹6)
providesclarityastohowtheorganizationw川
needtooperatedifferentlyinordertomeetthe
changingconditionsofitsmarkets,customers,
andovera=businessenvironment
TABLE
6.3
Vision
Definitions
bedirected.ThevisionitselfisPresentedasaPictureorimagethatservesasaguideto
that位ture.VisionscanthusbeinsPiring,motivational,emotional,oranalytical,dePending
on whosedefinitionweareus・ng.
Definitionsdonotnecessari1yhe1Ptodeterminetheactua1contentofvisionsモqmber1y
Boaland RobertHooりberg(2ml)arguethatvisionshavetwocomPonents:
・ Cogmmノg(intellectual),Basedonin危rmationandexPressesoutcomesand howthese
willbeachieved
o
A脈emve(emotional).APPealstovaluesandbelie危,andthusunderpinsthe motivation
andcommitmentthatarekeytoimP1ementation
Table6,4summarizestheviewsofcommentatorsonthecomPonentsofan e鎖ective
vlslon. Mostcommentarypointstosimilarattributes,suggestingthatvisionsshouldbe
asPilational,clear,desirable,distinctive,easyto
communicate, 免asible, neぬble,future-
focused,insPiring, meaningful, memorable,and motivating,allditshouldrecognizethe
problems魚cingtheorganization,
Tobe motivating,a v・slon mayneed another,counter
intuitive
comPonent, Change
managersareo代enadvisedto makeclearhowbadthingsareandemPhasizetheurgency
ofchange,Thisis“burningP1atlbrm”theory,in whichabreakwiththePastpromisesa
brightnew future. This
soundslogical
and Positive.ButpeoP1e
also value
coherence,
consistency,andcontinuity.Visionsthato爺ertobreakwiththePast maybethreatening
anddiscouragesuPPort.Venusetal.(2019)arguethatPeoplearelikelytoresistchanges
thattheyseeasthreateningtothe立senseoforganizationalcontinuity.Visionsthato都er
m司orchanges,howeverexcitingandinnovative,canbedemotivating.Sohowcanchange
managers motivatewithvision?TheansweristhatavisionthatPromotescontinuityas
wellaschangewillreduceuncertaintyandreduceresistance.Venusetal.(2019,p.684)
exP1oretheimP1ications云orchange managementPracticeinthe量)1lowingterms:
UnlikeengaginginstrategiessuchascreatingadissatislactionWiththestatusquo,and
consequently,aneed化)rchange,andPortrayingchangeashighlyattractive,managers
oughttoemphasizea1sothatWhichisnotgoingtochange.lfunWi1lingnesstocontribute
tochangeisrootedinconcernsaboutaPotentialdiscontinuityofthecentralaspectsof
theorganizationalidentity,then managersoughttoassureemployeesthatthiswillnotbe
chapter6
Pmposeの74〆お′の7
185
TABLE6.4
characteristics AdvocateS
The
Characteristics
Providesaclearsenseofcontinuityoforganizationalidentity
Venusetal.(2019)
ofEf絶ctive
UsesimagebasedrhetorictopaintaconcretePictureof
CartonandLucas(2018)
M7げd.Providesastriking mentaーimageofthefuture
′nsp′“ng,CaPturestheheart,andengagesPeoPーeto
committoaca
use
Th・-・V,・lu・二・ofEffごctiv(.Vi~ion~
186
Cha er6
Pz′′Posed′7d“s′○′7
Cartonand Lucas(2018)notethatwhen wethinkaboutthefUture,wetendtothink
inabstractterms.Senior managers maybeadvisedtothinkinthisway when creating
theirorganization
’svision,whichoftenturnsouttobesomethinglike“aiming危rexcel…
lence,
”‘‘changethe world,
”or”servethecommunity,
”Visionslikethesearevague;there
aretoomanydi爺erentinterPretations,However,thismeansthattheyarenottruly
“vision-
ary.
”Tmshappensbecause,when wethinkabouthow wearegoingtouselanguage,we
activate 豹e′72gαm″gわαsedsysrの鶴 whichhandlesabstractconcePtssuch as”bettercus-
tomerservice.
’’The meaning-basedsystem relieson abstractrhetoric.
Theuseofabstractrhetoricleadsto whatCartonalldLucascall“blurryvisionbias.
”
Thisisbasedinparton how wethinkaboutthefuture,Asithasnothappenedyet,we
cannotsee or 危elit,so wetendtorely on an abstractunderstandingofwhatitwill
mean:providingexcellentcustomerservice.Carton and Lucasarguethatthistendency
isparticularly markedinthose who are mostlikelytoberesponsiblefbてcraftingthe
organization
’svision-seniormanagers-becausethoseinpositionsofpowertendtothink
i
n broad,abstracttermsabouttheorganization
’sstrategy.
lncontrast,豹eexz7erZe〃ce‐る鯛ed球櫛e〃?Processessensoryin恥rmationabouttheworld
andanowsustoi1naginerea1-1if℃experiencessuchas“seeingcustomerssIni1eastheyeat
inourrestaurants.
“Thissystem usesimagebasedrhetoric-languagethatdepictso輔ects
(cars),actions(driving),andevents(landingonthe moon).lmagebasedrhetoric also
engagestheemotions,ismorememorable,andisthere]R)remoremotivating,andislikely
toencourageaction:
N1eetjngaPersonwhobenefits丘om one’sheIPismoremotivatingthanreadingaboutit;
seeingonePersondieuPclosea爺ectsmoraljudgmentmorethandoesdroppingabombon
thousands丑om adistance;andobservingameasuringcuPcontainingtheamountofsugar
inonesodadetersso代drinkconsumPtion morethanreadingaboutcaloriccontent.Astory
ofasmglehungryChildelicitedmoreCharitablegivmgcomParedtostatisticsaboutthousands
ofstarvingvillagers,andPeopleweremorelikelytoquitsmo糧山gwhentheyreadabout
howtheirhabitCausedPeoP1eto“reelbackindisgustfromthesmoker’sPutridodor”than
whentheyreadaboutitsadversehealthe爺ects.(CartonandLucas,2018,P.2108)
B1urryvisionbiashappensbecause managersrely moreheavilyonthe meaning‐based
system intheir
choice
oflanguage.This
can be
overcomebyrelying
instead
on the
experience-basedsystem andimage-basedrhetoric,Thelatterdescribeshowtheworldwill
look,sound,and 篤elwhentheorganization
’svisionisachieved,H[owever,thisinvolves
morethan
asi.訂ーP1e
changeinthe
choiceoflanguagein Whichto
expressthe vision.
Carton and Lucasarguethat,ifyou don’thaveaconcreteimagein mind,you aresti且
likelytoendup withabstractblurryvisionbias.
Toovercomeblurryvisionbias,CartonandLucas(2018,P.2107)suggestthedeliberate
useofthetechniqueofre“zpoメメ メのed/o′?,which means:
mentallyPrqiectingoneselftoamomentinthedistantfuture,akinto mentaltimetravel-
thattargetstheexperience‐basedsystemratherthanthemeaning‐basedsystem.Rather
thanContemP1atethedistantfutureabstractly,thistacticimPelsleaderstoimaginethe
futureinvividdetail,asiftheyaredirectlyobservingafuturescenariothroughfiロsthand
observation.ByvividlydePictinganeventoroutcomethatanorganizationCanoneday
realize,image‐basedrhetoricreflectsthenotionthatavisionisa”Portrait”ofanideal
短tureandunderscorestheveryessenceoftheword“visioが-theabilitytosee,(Carton
andLucas,2018,P,2107)
Chapter6
P”ゆoseの可 巧sわ〃
187
11laseriesofexperiments,CartonandLucas化’undthatseniormanagerswhoimagined
whatitwouldbeliketoseetheirorganizationsachievetheirvisiononedayinthe uture
developedvisionswithgreaterimagery,withoutweakeningotheraspectssuchasachiev‐
ability,speci賃city,andvalues,
c0nSiderthefollowingSampleofViSi0nStatementS.
VVith
referencetothe
criteria
shown
in
table
6.4,
which ofthesestatementsarein yourjudgment
effective,and whicharenot?BasedontheirVision
statements,forwhichofthesecompanieswould
you
wanttowork?VVhosevls-onswouldturnyouaway?
VVhy?
How
do
you
explainyour
preferences
and
diS1ikesWithregardtothesevisions?
A′「bnb
APP/e
COC0‐Co/o
Belonganywhere.
VVebelievethatweareontheface
oftheearthtomakegreatproducts
andtharsnotchanging.
VVe
bring
the world’sbreathtaking
diversityintocinematicfocus,tell-
ing
stories
thatare
revealing
and
lnsplrーng.
lnspiringeachothertobethebest
we
can
be
by providing
a
great
p-acetowork.
下o
be
one
of
the World’s
leading
producers
and
providers
ofenter-
tainmentandinformation.
ourvisionforcommerceisonethat
is
enabled
bypeop-e,powered
by
techno-ogy,andopentoeveryone.
下o
provide
access
to
the World’s
informationinoneclick.
Srorbucks
しMQ′mqrr
Becomingthebestglobalentertain-
mentdistributionservice.Licenslng
entertainment
content
around
the
wor-d,creating markets
that
are
accessibletofi-m makersandhelp-
ing
content
creators
around
the
worldtofindag-obalaudience.
下obring
inspirationand
innovation
toeveryathleteintheworld.
VVe
envlslon
a cultural
platform
where
professionaー creators
can
breakfree
oftheir
medium’s
con-
straints
and where
everyone
can
enjoyanimmersiveartisticexper--
encethatenablesustoempathize
witheachotherandtofeelpartofa
greaterwhole,
下oestablishStarbucksasthepre-
mierpurveyorofthefinestcoffee
inthe world While maintainingour
uncompromlslng principles
While
wegrow.
Bethedestinationforcustomersto
save
money,no matter
how
they
Wanttoshop.
From MissionStatementAcademy.2019.https://
mission‐statement.com.
Vision and MarketStrategy
Somecommentatorsarguethat,tocreatecompetitiveadvantage,anorganization
’svision
andstrategy mustbeunconventional,perhaps
even counterintuitive,and mustalso be
distinct丘omthoseofothercomPanies.Visionshavebothe×ternalandinternaldimen-
sions.Theexternaldimensionconcernshow marketswork,whatdrivescustomers,com‐
petitors,industrydynamics,and macroeconomictrends.Aswesawinchapter5,thetoy
manu魚cturingco]mPany M【atteltraditionallyregardeditscorebusinessassellingtoysthat
were madeinitsown 危ctories.Fallingsalesandthebehaviorofcompetitors,however,
encouragedM[atteltooutsourceproductionanddevelopintoamediabusiness.Mattelhas
188
chapter6
P”′poseの7dyお′。〃
h
‐adtodeVe1opneWinterna1capabi1itiestorea1iZethisnew VISIon,Customerscanexpect
tosee moviesbasedolIM[attelbrandssuchasBarbie,HotVVheels,AI1nericanGirl,M[agic
8‐Ball,and MaiorMattMasonappearoncinemascreensinthe2020s(Lashinsky,2019),
Having a weローspecifiedexternalvisionhelpstoidentifyhowthecompany willgrow
andcompete.onlythencanallinternalvisionbedeveloped,pointingtothecapabilities
thatneedtobeacquiredtocompete,andalsoto whattheorganizationseekstobecome,
Externalandinternaldimensionsofthevisionthushavetobealigned,
WithanarratiVeorSto~thatdearlyanicuーateSthe
“bigpicture“--whychangeisimponantandhowit
wilー
positivelyaffectthe
organization
ーong‐term.
Thisshouldse~easthefoundationforhowyou
communicateaboutthechangemovingforward.
(Galbraith,2018,p.3)
lnspirepeoplebypresentingacompe-lingvlsーon
forthefuture.Duringtimesofuncertainty,peopーe
experiencingchangeWantaclearviewofthepath
ahead.lt’s
importantto
share Whatyou
know--
includingwhat’schanging,When,andhow.Butfor
mostchangeinitiatives,itisalso
he-pfultostart
鱈圏璽霞圏璽
How VisionsAre Developed
How arevlslonsdeveloped?v▽ewillconsiderthreeanswerstothisquestion,exploring
approachesto”cra賃ing
’’avision,thekindsofquestionsthatcanhelptodevelopavision,
andconnectingthevisiontotheorganization
’s”innervoice.
Craftingthe Vision
LawrenceHolppand MichaeIKelly(1988,p.48)arguethatcra賃ingavisionis“alittle
likedancingwitha500‐poundgorilla.lttakesalittlewhileto getthesteps down,but
oncethedanceisover,youk‐ロowyou
’vereallyaccomーplishedsomething.
” Therearedif
免rentapProaches(ordances)tocra賃ing orcreating a vision,andsomeofthese are
outlinedintable6.5(basedon aconceptsimilartothe“leadershipstylescontinuum,
”
discussedinchapterlo,tablelo.7),
TABLE6.5
Approach
漁′hat-tMeans
Used汎′hen
APProachesto
下eー.
Chiefexecut-vecreatesthevーs1on lnvolvementisnotseenasVision‐Crafting
important,
andgivesittostaff.
SeH
Chiefexecutivehasavisionthathe
Chiefexecutiveisattractedtothe
orshewantsstafftoaccept,
vlslonandwantsotherstoadoptit.
下est
Chiefexecutiveseeksfeedbackon
Chiefexecutivewantstoseewhich
ideasaboutavision,
aspectsofthevisionfindsupport,
Consult
ChiefexecutiVeseeksthe
creative
Chiefexecutiveneedshelpto
inputofstaff,Withinsetparameters,
developtheVision.
Co‐create
Chiefexecutiveandstaffcreatea
Chiefexecutivewantstoidentify
sharedvision.
sharedvisionsthroughoutthe
organization,
Chapter6
Aノ′poseの7d““o′7
189
TABLE6.6
Deetzeta-.(2ooo)
Davidson(2004)
BelgardandRayner(2004)
Guidelines節r
structuri加ーgthe
1
Useaqualifiedfacilitato[
Developtrialvision
Leadershipteamdefines
VisionProcess:
statements.
thetimeーine.
produced.
6
Takeactionquicklyto
{
Getfeedbackfrom
across
capitalizeonenthusiasm;
theorganization.
19O
ChaPter6
P”′Pose”′〆 “s′○′7
newfrontlineteam visionthatcan‐be“cascadeduP
“throughtheorganization,Ashkenas
and Manville(2019,P.3)alsonote,
”Eachofthese[modesofinvolvementinvision‐cra食-
ing] can ProPelyour Pro危ssionaldeveloPment,leadingto biggerresPonsibilitiesover
time.
“Aninclusiveapproachtovision‐cra]Ringcanhelptoensure”ownership
“oftheend
result.Atesetal,(2019)arguethatthepotentiallypositiveimpactofvisionaryleadership
canbelostwhen middle managersarenotalignedwiththetop managementvisionand
thatthislackofalignmentcancausestrategicchangee鯨ortstobreakdownor魚il.
Askingthe Right Questions
Discussionofdifferentdegreesofinvo1vementinthe deve1op]mentofan organization
,s
visiondonotd口ectlyaddressthequestionofhowtodevelopthesubstance
ofthevision
itself,Holppand Ke且y(1988)identi肯threedi爺erentapproachesandsetsofquestions
throughwhichvision maybedeveloped,Theylabeltheseapproaches溺れ‘!Z!ve,αm卿Zcq/,
andわe′に左mqr幻刀g.
TheZ′7れ腐れ′eapproachreliesontheuseofimaginationandimagerytoencouragesta茸
toparticipateinvision development, Managersareaskedtoimaginedoingthei1jobsin
sucha waythattheyreallyachieve whatthey wantfrom themselvesand 丘omtheother
peoplewithwhomthey work:
First,theyareaskedtolistuptotenthingsthattheywanttoachievepersonallyand
Pro定ssionally,andthentoprioritizethese,恥cusingonthetoptwoorthree.
Second,they化)cusontheircurrentsituationasawaytoidentifythetension
between
theircurrentlivede×periencesandtheirdesiredimage.
Third,theyareprovidedwithsupporttohelpidentiル andimplementstructuredaction
plansto worktowardachievingtheirvision,
Them7のノ加須approachseesvlslonsasde6‐nedinrelationtoorganizationalordepart‐
mentalmissionsandroles.Visionisthusrelatedtopurposeand化)cusesonthe賃)1lowing
questions:
▽vhoisservedbytheorgani
zation?
VVhatdoestheorganizationdo?
Vvheredoestheorganizationplace mostofitse”ヨorts?
VVhydoestheorganization食)cusonparticularworkandgoals?
How doestheorganization operationalizetheseeがorts?
Theaim ofthese questionsistoguidethe organization as
a Whole,and 加ーdividual
departments,丘omthecurrentsituationtoadesiredfuturestate,
Theらのに初?mr殻′ばapproachbasesthevisionontheactionsandstandardsoftheorga-
nization’stoughestcompetitors.Thisinvolvesasldng:
・ ▽vhatdoourcompetitorsdowen?
・ Howcanwesurpassthis?
・ VVhatquantitativeandqualitative measureswouldindicatethatwehadachievedthis?
・ VVhatwillitbelike,andhow willit発el,whenthosestandardshavebeenachieved?
chapter6
Pmposeq〃d“sわ″ 19・
ThebenchmarldLngaPProachismoree×ternally 化)cused,ComPared withtheintuitive
andanalyticalapproaches,whichhaveaninternal危cus.HerearesomeoftheProblems
withtheseapproaches:
・ TheintuitiveaPProach,which賞)1lowsan organization developmentPersPective,may
producePersonalvisionsthatarenotconnectedtothecorebusinessoftheorganiza-
tionandtocurrentoranticipatedindustrytrends.
・ TheanalyticalaPProachservesmoretoalignthevisiontothe missionoftheorgani‐
zationbutPayslessattentiontothevaluesandguidinglogicsoftheorganization.By
aligningtootightlywithmission,theanalyticalapproach mayneglecttheinspirational
elementofvisions.
・ ThebenchmarldLngapproach assumesthattheorganization’s 範turewillbelinkedto
currentcompetitors.However,itmaybe morevaluabletoidenti趣 whowillbethenew
competitorsinthefuture,esPecially where an organization and asectorare 魚cing
translt)rmationalchange.
“Bread and Salt’’:Connectingtothe organization’s”lnnerVbice”
RobertQuinn(1996,p.197)makesaninterestingcontributiontotheProcessofidenti‐
6〆ingchangevlslons.Hepoints outthat,in manyorganizations,people wantto kllow
whatthevisionisandlooktothechiefexecutiveto provideit.Parado樽ically,however,
wherevlslonstatementsareavailable,suchasoncorporatebusinesscards,thesearelikely
toberf考ectedasbeingin nameonly;theyarenotwhatpeopleare“winingtodie化)r.
“
Hearguesthatdevelopinga vision to guide
organizationalactions hasto gobeyond
suPer賃cialstatementsand”Con杜ontthelackofintegritythateXistsinthesystem,
“an
exercise化)rwhich発w managersarewellequipped.
Toillustratethisview,hetellsthestoryofasPeech givenbyハイ【ahatmaGandhiata
politicalconventioninlndia.VVhenherosetosPeak,manyintheaudiencealsorose,le貴
theirseats,andPaidlittleattentionto him. However,ashespoke about whatlndians
reallycaredabout--notpolitics,butbreadandsalt-theaudiencesatdownagainandlis‐
tened.His message wasunusual:”Thissmall,unassuming manhadjourneyedthrough
theirheartland and capturedtheessenceoflndia.He wasvocalizingitin a waythey
could角elandunderstand.Sucharticulationisoftenattheheartofradical,deepchange
”
(Quinn,1996,p,199).ForQuinn,itisthisabilityto賃ndtheorganizatiods“breadand
salt“that makesav・slon appealing,passionate,andbeyondthesuperficial.Thissearch
貴)rthe”innervoice’oftheorganizationisnecessary,todevelopvlslonsthatresonateand
narrowthegap between“talkand walk.
”Such“bread‐and-salt”visionsareachievedina
circular mannerinvolvingabottom-uPandtop‐downdialoguetoreachthe“innervoice“
oftheorganization.
Adoptingasimilarposition,Rogers(2007,p.229)maintainsthat“visionisasmuch
aboutinsightas昼lrsight.
“Visionsneedto connectwithPeoP1e
’sdesires, 花elings,and
ambitions,as we1.aswiththeorganization’sintentions. Resonating withthe 勿云e′preだr
imageofchange management,thisimpliesthatvisionsareimPortantinencouragingthe
membersofan organizationto develop andexP1ore
”neW waysofseeing,
“togain 丑esh
insights,makenew connections,andtobebetterpreparedto work withthechallenges
thatanew visionislikelytobring,
192
Chapter6
ル′′poseの7d”なめ〃
国璽園 W′hy VisionSFaiI
Visionscan鏡ilあranumberofreasons.Forexample,thiscanhappenwhenavlslon‐ls:
7
bo 切に前c.Failsto appreciatetheinabilityto controlchange,andthe degreeof
uncertaintyo貴enassociatedWithoutcomes
7ZOOCのれ【フ定工,Difficulttounderstand
7bo mg”e,FailstoactasalandmarktowardWhichchangeactionsaredirected
ヱねαdeの!のe‘onlypartiallyaddressesthepresentingproblem
・ “.だ/eyの”,C1earpicture,notfirmlyattachedtothe
business
. β/・z″red.NoclearPictureoftheFuture
. 防7reのZSZZC.PerceivedasnotachieVab1e
・ Areαrl′Zew 〃7Zrroz PicturesthePast,extraPolatedintothefuture
l
loddJick(2001,p.36)addsthatavisionislikelyto態ilwhenleaderssPend9opercent
oftheirtimearticulatingit(butnotnecessarilyinclearlyunderstoodterms)andonly
lopercentoftheirtimeimplementingit.Table6,7
suggests otherreasons whyvisions
鏡il.Thebox”ALackofSharedVision“tellsashortstoryabouttheabsenceofashared
vision.Vi′ewillnowconsidertwofurtherreasons食)rvision魚ilure:inabilitytoadaptover
time,andthePresenceofcompetingvlslons.
ThechiefexecutiveofProcter&Gamble(P&G),A1an
Lafley,is
reflecting
on
his
five
years
ofleading
change
insidethe
company.one
ofhis
key
com-
mentsisthathefounditimportanttoprovidemore
thanjusta
brieflystated vision,because people
respondedbettertospecifics:
Soifl’dstoppedat”VVe’regoingtorefocusonthe
company’scorebusinesses,
“thatwouldn’thave
beengoodenough.Thecorebusinessesareone,
two,three,four.Fabriccare,babycare,feminine
care,andhaircare.Andthenyougetquestions:
”VVell,1
’minhomecare.lsthatacorebusiness?”
“No.
””VVhatdoesithavetodotobecomeacore
business?“
”lt
has
to
be
a 9lobal
ーeader
in
its
Fai1ureto Adapt
SomevlslonsstandthetestoftimeandremainapplicableandadaPtableto new situa‐
tionsandenvironments.others,however,needtobeoverhauledtoremainrelevant,This
VVhydidthisextradetail
help?Forl‐afley,there
weretwofactors,onewasthesizeanddiversityof
thep&G workforce-100,00opeoplefromoverloo
cultures.Thesecondwasthat,formanagerswithso
muchgoingonintheirbusinesses,theproVIS-onof
moredetailontheimplicationsofthevisionhe-ped
themtofocusonwhatwasneededtoimplementit
(GuptaandWendler,2005,p.3),
industry,lthasto
havethe
beststructural
eco‐
nomics
in
its
industry.1thasto
beab-etogrow
consistentlyatacertainrate.lthastobeableto
deliveracertaincashflowreturnoninvestment.
”
So
then
business
leaders understand
what
it
takestobecomeacorebusiness.
Chapter6
Pz”po肥α′7メ“s′0“
193
TABLE6.7
VVI1yVisionsFail
Source:Basedon
Lipton(1996,
pp.89‐91).
VisionsFai-VVhen...
Because.”
rhewo政′sd′”;erent存om
VVhenmanagersdonotmatchtheirwordswithactions,staff
でhero秋,
memberstreatthevisionasanemPtyslogan.
Theyoreそreoredosそれe
TheexPectationswiーlbeunreaーistic,andvisionsarenot
”わ0/ygro′!ぞ
magicsolutions.
丁力eyore打orConnecそedro
Visionsneedtorecognizecurrentobstaclesiftheyareto
t力epresenf.
bebelievableandseenasachievabーe・
Theyorefoodbsrrocもor
Visionsmustbeidealistic,reaーistic,andtangible.
rooco“Crere.
Deve/opmlentdoesnot
ltisoftentheprocessaswellasthefinalvisionthathelpsto
′nvo/veocreo”veProcess. securetheorganization’sfuture.
Port′cの0”on′s″m′red.
Consensusmustbebuiltaroundthevision,whichhastobe
diffusedthroughouttheorganization.
Peop/eoreco」mp/ocent.
Visionsthatareprojectedtoofarintothefuturearenot
seenasurgent.
JohnSymons{2006)teー-sthefollowin9humorous
story:
Themaninthehotairba”oonwaslost.Descend-
ing
sufficiently
he
shouted
to
a walker
on
the
groundaskingwherehewas,
“ouare30feetup
intheair,
“
was
herimmediateresponse
before
shewalkedaway.
Asked
subsequently
byacompanionto
e
plainthisunhelpfulbehaviorshesaid:”Hewasa
typicaーmanager,Hedidn’tknowwherehewas,or
howtogettowherehewantedtogowithoutthe
help
ofthose
underneath
him.
”Somewhat
mis-
chievouslyshe
added,●
”W′hyshou-d
l
do
more
than
necessary
to
help someone
who
got
to
wherehewasbyhotairanddidnotte=mewhere
hewasplanningtogo?”
ASJohnsymonscomments:
Sheobvious-ydidnotknoworsharetheballoon-
ist’svision,Thelessonformanagersiscーear.As
well
asenthusingthoseunderneath,theleader
needstocommunicatewhereheorsheisinrela‐
tionto
achievingthevision.
situation
is
illustrated
bytheinvestigation byL1oyd Harris
and Emmanuel
ogbonna
(1999)intotwo medium‐sized UK‐retailcompaniesandtheimpactofthe 危unders’
vlslonsonstrategicchange.lnbothcases,thecomーPany化’underestablishedthevision
wellover
looyearsagoandthere wasevidenceofanescalationofcommitmenttothe
visionbysubsequent management,ln onecompany,thevision waspaternalistic(com‐
mitmenttowardsta甘)and あcusedonprudentgromh.Thisledtoastrongあcusonsales
andprofitabilityineach new storelocation.Thesecharacteristics werestillpresentin
the
current management
ofthe
company. The vision
itself was
seen
as
fleゴロible
and
responsive
to
the
prevailing
environmental
conditions
花lcing the
comーpany, The
194
ChaPter6
A″Posed′7d粋瀞o′7
researcherslabelthe 危under’svisioninthiscaseasProvidinga“strategicdividenず 危r
subsequent management,
Bycontrast,intheothercompany,the 危under’svision wasto haveastoreinevery
towninaParticularregion,A second asPectofthisvisionconcerned 魚milycontrolof
the company,Theresearchers
arguethatthisoriginalvision continuedto drivesenlor
management.However,incontrasttothefi1stcomPany,thisvisionservedasa“strategic
hangover.
” The closed nature
ofthe visionledsuccessive managementteamsto
make
decisionsthatwereoutofstep withchangesintheenvironmentalconditions魚cingthe
sector,suchasthe movementoflargeretailstoresintotheregionandashi貴infocusof
such
storesfrom priceto
quality and
service, As
aresult,the
comPany almost 魚ced
financialruinontwoseparateoccasions,lnrelationtosubsequentstrategicchangeactions
takenbymanagementinthesetwocompanies,theauthorsarguethat“whethertheoriginaI
Vis・onofthe あunderresultsinalegacyorahangoverisclearlydependentontheoriginal
fle〆ibility ofthe strategy and the later environmental aPpropriateness
” (Harris and
ogbonna,1999,p.340),
Presence ofCompetin9 Visions
Visions mayalso 態ildueto what Kanteretal.(1992)call“visioncollisions,
” where
multiP1evisionsconf1ictwitheachother.Thishappens,おorexamp1e,whenthevisionis
cra貴edbystrategistswhoareconvincedoftheneed あrchange,butwherethissenseof
urgencyisnotsharedbythose who willimplementorbea節ectedbythechange(who
maystillbetryingtoembedpreviouschanges).Visioncollisionscan also occur Where
thereisagap betweenthevisionsofmanagementandstakeholders.lnthemid‐1980s,
thevisionofNike,thesportswearcompany,Wastomakeath1eticFootwear.However,the
companyあundthatadifferentmarketsegmentwasbuyingtheirshoes;notathletes,but
people
who
were wearing Nike
trainers
instead
ofcasual
shoes. Nikerespondedby
introducingitsownbrandofcasualshoes,This
strategy 魚iledbecause Nikehadnot
understoodthatcustomerswerebuyingexPensive
“overengineeredsneakers”becausethey
aPpealedtotheirimage,ln other words,thecomPany
’svision wasoutofstep withits
customers’visionofNike.M[ultipleandconflictingvisionscanalsoarisewithcompany
mergers. Colin Mitchell(2002),forexample,citesthe 魚ilurein2000 ofthe merger
between
Deutsche
Bank and DresdnerBank,lnthis
merger,there was
a “魚ilure
of
managementtopersuade Deutsche’sinvestmentbankersofthevision貴)rhowthenewly
mergedcomPany wouldcompete,△αanykeyemployeesleg〔,andthethreatofmasswalk
out賃)rced Deutschetoabandonthedeala賃erconsiderabledamagetothesharePrice
ofbothco・][・Panies”(p.104).
鯉圃瞳圃圏
Linking Visionto Change:Three DebateS
1nthissection,weexplorethreedebatesconcerningthe蹴lksbetweenvislonandorgani-
zationalchange.First,weaskifvisionisadriverofchange,orifvisionemergesthjFough
thechangeprocess,Second,weask whethervisionhelpsorhinderschange.Third,We
assesswhethervisionisbetterattributedtoheroic,charismaticleaders,orisbetterunder‐
stoodasanorganizationalattribute,
Chapter6
Pmp。肥 の7d”おめ″ 195
Debate one.‐Vision
during Change?
Driving Change orEmerging
Thechange managementaPProachesand貴÷ameworksdescribedinchaPterlogivevlslon
aprominentroleinunderpinningandimplementingorganizationalchange.
ForKanteretal.(1992),establishingavisionisthefirststeptowardchange. Without
avlslon,changes mayseem arbitraryand unnecessary.Vision providesclarityabout
thegoalsofchange,avoidingtheperceptionthatthisisjustanothercost‐cuttingexer
cise.Thevisioncan motivatesta賃toembracechange,engagingin whatmayseemto
bedauntingorriskyactions.
ForPendleburyetal.(1998),vision determinesthescoPe,depth,andtime 貢ame
ofchange,andtheareasthatwillbeanコected.Havingavlslonatthestartofchange
isneededforbothtrans免rmationalchange(outliningthebroaderstrategicintent
to whichallactionsaredirected)andincrementaloradaptivechange(wherethe
vlslon
can
be
more
specific
in
terms
of
specifying change
objectives
andvlslon
can
e more
specllc
ln
procedures).
Theneed orvision atthestartofchangeisalsoembeddedinthestrategylitera‐
ture,wherethetermsZFQ肥厚c/“定期iso賃en usedtorepresentvision.Thisisusually
associatedwiththeworkofGary HamelandC.K.Prahalad(1989,p.4),whoargue
that“strategicintentenvlslonsadesiredleadershipposition and establishesthecri‐
teriontheorganizationwillusetochartitsprogress,
“Theypointto Komatsu’s“Encir-
cle
Caterpillar
” and
Canon’s “Beat
Xerox” as
vlslonary
statements that
capture
strategicintent.Thestrategicintentbehindsuchstatementswaslongterm andencom‐
passedanumberofdifferentchangeprogramsandactionsovertheshortandmedium
termsthat weredesignedto worktowardthelonger‐term vlslon.Thestrategicintent
expressedthedesiredendresultwithoutspecifyingorprescribingthenecessarysteps
Forachievingit.
騎sわ〃Emergesd”“〃g C乃α〃ge
AJthoughimportant,itmaynotbepossibletoarticulateaclearvlslonatanearlystage
duringtransformationalordiscontinuouschange.Robertshaw(1995)arguesthatorga‐
nizationalstructuresand managementprocessesmayrequirefundamentalchange.ltmay
notbepossibletodeveloPavlslon untila貸ertheprocesshasbeguntoun範ldbecause
therelevantinあrmation maynotbeavailableinthecurrentconfiguration (customer
expectations,competition).ln other words,discontinuouschange hasto beunder way
to makethatin貴)rmationavailabletoin貴)rmthedevelopmentofvision.Those whoare
leadingthe
change
are
surroundedbythe presenting problems
and are
ableto make
real‐timeadjustmentsinthecontextoftheresultsoftheirongoinge掻orts,Quinn(1996,
p.83)describesthisas“buildingthebridgeasyou walkit.
”
ls”thevisionthing
”overratedintermsofdrivingchange?ltispossibletoarguethat
eがectivebusinessplanningleadstosuccessfulchange,andnotvision,orvlslonaryleaders・
ls “vision rhetoric” usedjustto
make
management decisions
appear to be
more
acceptable?
198
ChaPter6
Pmz7osed′7d幹瀞o′7
ForLissackandRoos(2001),theConcePtofVisionis上江口itedbyotherassumPtions,one
assumptionisthatorganizationalboundariesarewelldefined:staぜ,customers,suppliers.ln
aworldoffuzzyorganizationalnetworks,thisassumptionisquestionable,Asecondassump-
tionisthattheidentityoftheorganizationisfixed,withthevisionbuiltaroundthatidentity,
頓Zeth血kofLego,免rexample,asatoycompany. However,corporateidentity一Whatthe
organizationdoes-isconstantlychanging;aswesawinchapter5,Legoisalsonowanonline
gamescompany.Lissack and Roos(2001,p.61)Pre発rtheterm “coherencご to vision,
Coherenceinvolves,
“actingin a marulerconsistentwithwhoyou aregivenyourpresent
spotinthebusinesslandscape.
” APinterestingargument,butitisuldikelythattheterm
のゐere′?α,emphasizingdebatesaroundboundariesandorganizationalidentity,winreplace
theconceptofvision,whichisdeeplyembeddedinchange managementthi血盟bog.
How doesvisionimpactindividualratherthan organizationalidentity,and canthis
propelorimpedechange?Thisissuehasgenerateddebate.Landauetal.(2006)notethat
sta賃 mayidentiル strongly withanorganization
’soriginalvisionand withtheunderlying
be口e危 and assumptions.However,when an attemptismadetoi可ectanew vlslon,this
islikelytoberesistedifitdisruptsindividualimagesandselfde賃nitions,Thenew vlslon
wil.lthereForehinderchange.Thisproblem canbeaddressedifitispossibleto ensure
thatnew o蝉ectivesand goalsremain consistentwiththevaluesandbeliefsthatunder
pinnedtheoriginalvision.
je鐙eyFordand Winiam Pasmore(2006)questionthisposition あrtworeasons,First,
itisnotclearthatvision doesd江ectlyal節ectindividualidentity量)rm無gprocesses.Thisis
anemp立icalquestionthatneedstobee×am超edandislikelytovaryacrossorgal雲izations.
Second,evenifweacceptthatthereisadirectrelationshipbetween血dividualidentityand
vision,theproblemlieswithsta甘 memberswhoaredeeP1ycommittedtoaneXistingidentity,
whichtheyarereluctanttochange,despitetheneedあranewvision(andperhaps,therefbre,
anewidentity)-evenifthenew visionisnecessarytosecurethe orga匝zation’ssurvival.
Theynote,
”Peopleshouldbeentitledtotheiridentities,butatthesal工let立ne,organizations
doneedpeoplewhoarecommittedtoaviable,sustainablevisiontosurvive“(p,176),This
argumentremmdsusthatchanges m vision maychallengeindividualidentities,thereby
producmgresistancetochange.VVhendevelopinganewvision,therelk)re,itisi1nrportantto
assess,first, whetherthiswinenable ordisableidentity-貴)rlilingprocesses,andsecond,
whetherthiswinencourageordiscouragethoseaがectedtobecomeinvo1vedinthe
change,
Debate Three.-Vision:An Attribute of Heroic Leaders
or Heroic organizations?
somecommentatorsarguethatsuccessfulorganizationa1changedependsoneがective1ead-
ership.For Nadlerandshaw(1995,p.219),
“heroicleaders”energizeandsupporttheir
角nowersand providethem withavisionthat“
providesavehicle角rpeopleto develop
com1P亘tlrlent,acommongoalaroundwhichpeoplecanrally,andaway貴)rpeopleto熊el
successful.
“Aswehavealreadynoted,thevision hastobeclear,compening,chanengiねg,
andcredible,butitmustalsobereflectedintheexpressionsandactionsoftheleaderwho
isarticulatingit,Nadler(1998,p.276)pointstovisionaryleaderssuchasJamieHoughton
attheU,S.technologycompanyCormngwhopainted
“anengrossmgpictureofaculture
inwhich Corningwouldbeoneofthemostcompetent,profitable,andrespectedcorpora‐
tions釦theent鱈eworld.
”日ealsoidenti負esscottMcNealyofSun Microsystems(nowpart
Chapter6 Pmposeの?〆″童sわ″
199
oforacle)asenvision止ロg“aninあrmationworldwherePeoplewouldbefteetochoose丘om‐
arangeofvendorsratherthan heldCaptivebyasingle,au‐powerFul mega-corporation.
”
lronically,someofthosewhoarecitedasvlslonaryleadersdonotseethemselvesasvlslon‐
aryorheroicandhavechallengedthesignifiCanCeofvision:
RoberZ互班o“,whenhewasCEO0fChrysler,downP1ayedvisionin 魚vorofmeasurable
short‐term results.
五万″ Gα解s,oneoftheFoundersofみなicroso賃,once declaredthat“Being Vis・onaryls
trivial.
”(Lipton,1996,P,86)
Nevertheless,thoseleadersareo賃enPraised食)rarticulatingclear,appealing,Challenging
imagesofthefutureoftheirorganizations-thehallmarksofe]mectivev・slons.
GardnerandAvoロo(1998)arguethate爺ectiveCharismatic,visionaryleadersCreate”ide止
tity節コages
”thatarevaluedanddesi崖redbyothers,宜lcorporatingtrustworth辻less,Credib廷ity,
morauty,血=novativeness,esteem,andPower.Draw血gon adramaturgicaIPersPective,they
arguethatCharismaticleadersenact(orper金rm)the壮visionsthrough 短urprocesses:
1, 万mmZ“g,Theartofmanaging meaning,influencingotherstoaccepttheleader’sinter-
Pretationofthevision,bystressingitsimportance,andaligningitwiththeirvalues
2.scrj駆動g.TheProcessofCoordinatingandintegrating morespecificsetsofideasand
actionsincluding:
・ castingoftheapPropriatekeyroles
・ dialogue,usingvariousrhetoricaldevices,suchasmetaphorsandstories,toincrease
theappealofthe message
・ providingd立ection,usingverbalandnonverbalbehaviorandemotionaldisplays
3.Smg粥g.Theselectionofsymbols,artifacts,proPs,andsettingstorein貴)rcethevision
4. ル堺ormZ〃g.Enactingthevisionbypersonallydemonstratingthebehaviorsrequiredto
achievethevision
ltisimportanttonotethat,althoughhavingavlslon・sconsideredby manyCommen‐
tatorstobeaprerequisite食)rsuccessfuIChangeleadership,othersdisagree.Vision may
beanecessaryComponentofinsPirationalleadership,butitmaynotbesu”Ficient.Robert
Go掻eeand GarethJones(2000)arguethat,to complementenergy and vision,other
qualitiesarenecessaryincluding:
・ revealingpersonalweaknessesto貢)1lowerstogaintheirtrust
・ sensinghowthingsareintheorganizationandthewiderenvironment,Pic]bLngupand
interpretingsubtlecuesandsignals
・ showing
“tough emPathy,
“
Passionate,Caring,butrealistic, 節Cusing on whatothers
needratherthan whattheywant
・ daringtobedifョヨerent,signallingand maintainingtheiruniqueness,while maintaining
socialdistance
lthasalsobeenarguedthatvisionaryleadersareneededataneverydaylevelthroughout
theorganization,andnotjustatthetop.SuchindividualsProvidewhatRogers(2007)Cans
“supervision,
”usinginteractions,conversations,androlemodellingtodemonstrate:
ReなPedn’e.ConcerningtheChallenges魚cingtheorganization
′’“′pose,BothPersonalandorganizational
200
Chapter6
P班posed′7d“s′。′7
Processes・Respond moree”ョectivelytocustomers
βossz虜/!rZes.Challengecurrentconstraints
bre′”Zα/.Concerningpersonalcontributions
′セsszo〃,Channelenergiesin meaningfuIWays
lnthisperspective,therelbre,to maintainengagementand motivation,ProvidingV1slon
mーustbeaday‐to‐dayactivityinvolving manyleadersacrosstheorganization,andnotan
occasionalprocessledbyasingleseniorfigureorasmalltopteam,
巧ぶ卿2左α〃血筋ら”だ け嵐erのco増加Zzqrゎm
CollinsandPorras(2005)arguethatvisionaryleadersarenotnecessarytocreatevisionary
companies,claimingthattheroleofcharismainsettingvision hasbeen exaggerated.A
charismaticleadermayevenbeanimpedimenttothecreationofavisionaryorganization;
sustainedorganizationale掻ectivenessdependsonembeddedvisions,values,andideologies,
ratherthan on pronouncements丘om oneseniorfigure,Theleader’sroleisto actasa
catalyst,稼cilitatingthedevelopmentof,andcommitmentto,thevision,Thisisaprocess
thatcanbeachievedthrough avarietyofleadershipand managementstyles,ltismore
inlportanttocreateanorganizationwithavisionthantohaveacharismaticchiefe×ecutive
withapersonalvision,
lnthisperspective,visionincorporatescoreideology,whichisunchanging,anddefines
whattheorganizationstandsあrandwhyitexists,Anenvisionedfutureiswhattheorga-
nization aspiresto
and changestoward overtime.ldeologycomprisescorevalues
and
core purpose, Core values
aredurableguidingprinciples:”the HP 訳/ay,
”釈ZaltDisney
Company
’s”imaginationand wholesomeness,
”Procter& Gamble’s“
productexcellence,
andNordstro鯖s“customerservice.
”CollinsandPorras(2005)notethatmostcompanies
haveonlythreetofivesharedcorevalues,Corepurposeontheotherhanddefinesthe
reason あrtheorganizatiodsexistence.
Corepurposeshouldbedurable(designedtolastacentury,perhaps)anddi鈷ers丘om
goalsand businessstrategies,which changeconstantlyovertime.Thepurpose maynot
change,butitshouldinspirechange,development,andprogress.Theenvisionedfuture,
incontrast,consistsof“BHAG‐s”-Big,Hairy,Audacious Goals,ordauntingchallenges
withspecifiedtimelinesthatcaninvolve:
・ Co′??′?7o〃e′?の?リノ/ogc.Phi五pM[orrisinthel950swantedto“krlocko甘RJRasthenum-
beronetobaccocompanyintheworld Nikeinthel960saimedto“crush Adidas,
”
・ Ro/emode//ogZc,Stanあrd Universityinthe
l940swantedtobecome“the Harvardof
the 帆Zest.
”
・ 方鶴er′?”/『〆”′?切々or′?7僻め“ わgZc,Thegoal貴)rGEinthel980swasto”become number
oneornumbertwoinevery marketweserve,andrevolutionizethiscompanytohave
the
strengths
ofabigcompany combined withtheleanness andagilityofa
small
company
“;Rockwellinl995wantedto”trans館ormthiscompany 丘o]m ade篤nsecon‐
tractorintothebestdiversifiedhigh-technologycompanyinthe world,
”
Afurthercomponentofenvisionedfuture,vividdescriptions,consistsofvibrant,pas‐
sionate,and engaging descriptionsofwhatitwiUbelikeinthefuture when goalsare
achieved. Envisioning
the
future
is
a
creative
process, engaging staff
across
the
organization,
Chapter6
月!′posed′7d騎瀞o′7
201
Coilinsand Porras(2005)arguethatcompletevi‐
sionshavethreecomponents:acoreideology(val-
uesandpurpose),anenvisionedfuture(big,haiw,
audaciousgoa-s),andvividdescriptions.Theyoffer
thefollowingexamp-efromthepharmaceuticalcom-
panyMerckinthel930s:
Coreldeology
Corev口′ues.Socialresponsibility
science‐basedinnovation
Purpose
opreserveandimprovehuman
TheworkofCollinsandPorrasoffersasensitive
treatment
ofthe
re-ationshipbetween
vlslon
and
change. Vision (which
they
also
call
”industry
foresighで)isbrokendownintocomponentparts,
some
ofwhich
remain
stableand
some
ofwhich
changeovertime.Manychangemode-sthatreferto
theneedforvisiontoguideorganizationaーchange
ーackthis
degree
ofsophistication.Vision
is
often
presented
as
something
that
guides
change,
handeddowntotheorganizationbythechiefexec‐
utiveandthetop‐managementteam,However,for
CollinsandPorras,vision(ascoreideoーogy)serves
as
an
enduring background
component,not
so
muchguidingchan9easreflectinghowchangewiーl
beachieved(byfoーlowingcorevalues,forexample).
ltistheenvisionedfutureofvisionthatofferscon-
cretechangedirection,concerningwhatshouldbe
changed,andhow,
EXERCISE
ourtaskistointerviewthreeemployees;theycanbeinthesameoradifferentorga-
6コ
nization.Askthemtothinkbacktoanorganizationaーchangethattheyexperiencedand
廓zeryzewz“g
toanswerthefolーowingquestions:
Rec夢/e“な
圏圏圃
1. VVeretheypresented withanorganizationalvisionforthischange?lfso:
VVhatwasthe
vision?
VVhateffectdidthishaveonthem?
VVeretheyinvolvedindevelopingthevision?
下o whatextentdidthevision motivatethemtoengageinthechange?
How centralwasthevisiontoimplementingthechange?
2.lfyourintervieweeswerenotgivenanorganizationalvisionforthischange,askthem:
VVouldavisionhavehelpedthemtounderstandandbecomeinvolvedinthechange?
Howimportantisvisiontoachievingorganizationalchange?
VVhenyou
have
completed yourinterviews,considerthe
responsesthatyou
have
documented.
VVhat
general
conclusions
emerge
regarding
the
relationship
between
Vislonandorganizationalchange?VVhathaveyoulearnedfromthisexercise?
202
chapter6
A〃poseの7d“s′。′7
EXERCISE
Consideryourowncurrentorganization,oranotherWith Whichyouarefamiliar,Which
6.2
couldbethelnstitution whereyouarestudying.Gotothe Websiteofthe MissionState‐
“α諺row刀
圏圏圃圏霊園
mentAcademy:https://mission‐statement.com.Note howtheyassessthe mlsslonand
vlsーonstatementsofleadingorganizations.Usingtheirstyleasatemplate,andreca=ing
thediscussionofeffective missionsandvisionsinthischapter,assessyourownchosen
organization’sapproachtotheseissues,
Does
your
organization’s
mission
statementset
out
a meaningful
and
challenging
purposethatWillexcite,attract,retain,and motivatestaff?
Does
your
organization’s
vision
statement
have
the
characteristicsidentified
in
table6.4?
Doyourorganization’s missionandvision
helptodrivechange,ornot?VVhy?
Areyourorganization’s missionand visionjusta“publicrelations”exerclse,orare
theyusedinpractice?How canyoutell?
.
・
‐
・ Whatchanges(ifany)Wouldyou maketoyourorganization’s missionandvision?
EXERCISE
Asyoureadthiscase,considerthefollowingquestions:
6.3
,. How wou-dyoudescribethe wayvision WasusedatMentorGraphics?
7了だ尺o定 げ
2.Did,itstrengthenorWeakenthecompany?How?VVhy?
巧諺oヵ所
3.ofthereasonsdiscussedinthischapterconcerningwhyvisionsfail,whichareapp-i-
ルをmor
3. ofthereasonsdiscussedinthischapterconcerningwhyvisionsfail,whichareapp-i-
cableto MentorGraphics?
4,VVhatisyourassessmentofthevisioncontentandtheprocessthrough Whichitwas
introduced
in
the
Mentor
Graphics
context?
VVhat
ーessons emerge
from
your
assessment?
5.BasedonwhathappenedatMentorGraphics,whataretheimplicationsforthethree
debatesdiscussed
inthischapter:Whethervisiondriveschangeoremergesduring
change;Whethervision
helpsorhinderschange;and whethervision
isanattribute
ofheroicleadersorheroicorganizations?
6, ofthesixchangeimagesoutlinedintable6,1,whichimagesofvisioncanbeapplied
tothiscasestudy?VVhat-essonsemergefromthis?
Foundedinl981,MentorGraphics(now Mentor,asiemensBusiness)isa U.S.elec‐
tronicdesignautomationbusiness.ltwasacquiredfor$4.5bi=ion bythe German mul-
tinationalsiemensin2017andhadrevenuesof$3bi=ionin2018.Accordingtocompany
president
Gerard
Langeler,the
role
ofvision
was
importantfrom
the beginnin9,The
companystarted withanunarticu1atedvisionto”Bui-dSomethingThatPeopleWilIBuy.
“
onthisbasis,theyspentseveralmonthsinterviewingpotentiaーcustomersanddesigning
acomputer‐aidedengineerin9Workstationproduct.Atthesametime,acompetitor,Daisy
Systems,Wasengaged
inthesametaskand,intheearlyyears,outcompeted Mentor
Graphics.Eventually,
“BeatDaisy”becamethenewvision,drivenbytheneedtosurvive
asabusiness.
Byl985 Mentor’srevenueswerehigherthan Daisy’s;theirvisionhadbeenrealized,
Thecompanycontinuedtogrow despitetherecession,butsufferedfromtypicaーgrowth
problems,including
decline
in
product
quality,and
prob-ems
ofinternal
company
ChaPter6
PmPosemm 騎瀞o′7
203
coordination.Stockvalue
also
suffered,and
a
numberofstaffapproached
Langeler
seekinganewvisionforthecompany.
Thenew v-slon wasdevelopedbasedon”SixBoxes,
”whichrepresentedthesixdif-
1nl989,yetanothervisionemerged:”Changingthe軌′aythe執′orldDesignsTogether.
”
ln
retrospect,Langeler
depictsthis
vision
as“thefinal
extension
ofvision
creepthat
began withSixBoxes,
“ltwasverygrandandhadlittletodowiththeactua-businesses
inwhich MentorGraphicsoperated,indudingthedevelopmentofitsnew8.0generation
ofsoftware.
Therea-ization,bythe earlyl99os,thatthe company’svision
detractedfrom What
the company wasactuallytryingto aChieve
ledtothe
dumplng
ofthevision
and
its
replacementwith
onethatechoedthe early beginning
ofthe company:”ou「current
short-,medium-,andlong‐term visionistobuildthingspeople wi=buy,
“Thiswasseen
AdditionaI
Hollensbe,E.,Wookey,C.,Hickey,L.,andGeorge,G.2014.organizationswithpur
Reading
pose.4mdemyqf賜伽αge′僻〃L加‘mq/57(5):1227‐34.Discussesvlslonandpurposein
ternlsofthe“
greatergood
“andtheorganization’scontributiontosociety.Theauthors
arguethatan organization
’ssenseofpurposemustrecognizetheinterdependenceof
businessandsociety,
lbarra,日.2015.4α/次eq/eqde′;豹方?化左化eq′eqde Boston:Harvard Business Review
Press.〇節ersadviceonthinkingstrategicallyandavoidingthedistractionsofshort-term
Priorities.Citing GeorgeVV.Bushandhisdismissivecommentabout“theVisionthing,
“
H[er・1linialbarraarguesthat“theabi日tytoenV1slonpossibilities食)rthefutureandto
sharethatvision withothersdistinguishesleaders官om nonleader (P,40).
Malnight,T.W.,Buche,1.,andDhanar鴫 C.2019.PutPurPoseatthecore
ofyour
strategy, 帰館堀川 β”s/′?ess尺e雑踏ーノ97(5) 0-79.ExP1ainshow aclearstatementofthe
organization’s missionorpurposecontributesto perlt)rlrlanceandcompetitiVeadvantage.
Venus, M.,Stam,D.,andvan KnipPenberg,D.2019.Visionsofchangeasvlslonsof
continuity.‐4md勿リノグ Mqmgeme〃『お“rm/62(3):66 90.Asdiscussedinthischapter,
oぼersthecounterintuitiveargumentthatgoodvisionstatementsshouldeInphasize
204
Chapter6
乃′′poseの7d”おデの?
continuityaswenaschange,Change meansuncertainty,WhichCanbede]MーotiVating,
Continuityandstabilityarereassuringandcanhelptoovercomepotentialresistance
tochange,
Roundup
Howdoyoudistinguishmission(orpur‐
pose)from vision?lsthisanimportant
distinction?
ln
yourorganization,how
aーigned
areyour
purpose
and
vision?
Are
there competing
missions
and
vlslons
inyouror9anization?
How are
theseresolved?
VVhat
criteria
do
you
use
to decide
whethermissionandvisionstatements
are-ikeーytobeusefulinyourorgan-za-
tion?VVhatothercriteriamightyouwish
totakeintoaccount?
Do
your
organization’s mission
and
v1s-on
statements
meetthose
criteria?
lf
not, how
would you
recommend
changingthem?
Looking
atthe
language
ofyour
mis-
sionstatement,isitabstractandvague,
ordoesituseinterestingimagery?How
couldyouimproveyourorganization’s
missionstatement?
Hereisashortsummaryofthekeypointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丘omthischaPter,
inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:
圏霊園 ☆
&叩/の7Z庇 の淳〃?だ′郡元rα〃〆”gの′鶏自力eの′7cepな げ〃〃勿oserormなs!o′7ノのばvZs!o″α″〆
加Wqpproαc庇szo 殆どseZssz′esdepの7do′自力eZmqge 〆mqmg!′?go増加Zzの!om/効の7ge,
Missionisastatementofpurpose:W〆hyarewehere?Visionisafutureaspiration:”/hat
dowewanttoachieve?Somecommentatorsarguethatstatementsofmissionandvision
areindispensable,givingpurpose,direction,motivation,inspiration,andchange.There
isevidencethataclearsenseoforganizationalpurposecancontributeto
organizational
perあrmanceandsustainedcompetitiveadvantage,othercommentatorsarguethatthese
conceptsaretooabstractandvagueandthattheyhavebecome meaningless,attracting
cynlclsm when mostorganizations have
similarly bland
statementsaboutexcellence,
socialresponsibility,empoweredemployees,anddelightedcustomers.
Theconceptsofmissionandvisionvarywiththeimageofchangemanagementthat
isin use. For
e×ample,the
directorimage
assumesthatresponsibilityFor 丘aming
Doesyourv-slon
promiseabreakwith
thepastandabrighterfuture?Couldem-
ployeesfeelthreatenedbythis?VVou1dit
be
helpfuー
to
emphasize
continuity--
whatisn’tchanging?
VVhatprocesshaveyouused,orseenin
use,tocraftaneffectivevision?Doyou
haveapersonalpreferencetowardan
intuitive
or
ananalytical
approach
to
visiondeve-opment?VVhy?
lstherean“innervoice“inyourorganー-
zation?
VVhat
are
the
”bread‐and‐but-
ter”issues?Arethere”undiscussable”
issuesinyourorganization?
Whatisyourjudgment:whendovisions
fail,and when
doestheireffectiveness
fade?Canvisionsberevitalized?How?
VVhat
isyour
position:do mission
and
vision
drive
change?
Do mission
and
visionhelpchange?lnpa代iculaちdoesvi‐
sionneedvisiona~leaders?
Chapter6
月‘′poseの?〆”isわ〃
205
missionandVisionstatementsliesWithseniorleaders,TheCaretakerassumesthatthe
organization
’s missionandVision areshaPedPrimarilybyexternal食)rces.Thecoach
後cilitatestheConsultationandco‐Creation Processthroughwhich missionandVision
aredeveloPedbysta賃丘om acrosstheorganization.Thenurturersees missionsand
VIS1onsemergingfromtheC1ashofunPredictable化)rCesandastemPoraryconstructs.
丑叩友粥 豹evq/“eげαc/mro増加Zz傭わ加/pz!のoseor′mss!o′?騨memの7Z
A証 organization
’sPurPoseisitsreason食)rbeinginbusiness.H[avingaC1earPurPose
hasbecomeimPortantas moreemP1oyees一ルlillennialsin Particular-areloo顔ng貴)r
meaning1n]lworkwithapurPosethatContributestosociety.PurPosecanhavestrategic
benefits,helpingtheorganizationtoidentifyandexploitnew marketopportunitiesthat
areconsistentwiththatpurPose.EvidencesuggeststhatPurpose‐driven organizations
gainhigher marketshare,havehigherProductivityandgrowth,havebetterjobsatis-
鏡ctionandemP1oyeeretention,andaremoreinnovative,Forgreaterimpactand menロー
orability,missionstatementsshoulduseconcreteimageryandnotabstractions.
Evidenceandexperiencesuggestthat,tobee節ective,vlslonsshouldbeclear,aPPealing,
vivid,ambitious,and attainable,providingasenseofdirection andguidingdecision
making,but
also
flexible
enough to
accommodate
initiative and
change.E掻ective
vls・ons
also
describe
a desirable-perhapsidea1一future あrtheorganization. Further
emotionalproperties
ofthe e甜ective vlslon,although difficultto
de丘ne,arethatit
“危elsgood“andthatitemphasizescontinuity,asa“completebreakwiththepast
“can
beseenasthreateninganddemotivating.Researchdemonstratesthatvisionsexpressed
inimage‐basedtermsare more motivatingand memorablethanthosethatusevague
abstractions.
“B1urry vision bias”canbeovercome usingthetechnique oftemporaI
PrQiection,whichinvolvesimagininghowtheorganization willlook,feel,and actin
thefuture・
4卿リノメ族ere〃“舵豹oぬ 鋼〆processesルrdelぞ/opZ〃gymo〃s.
Thereare manyaPProachesto develoPingvlslon,ranging onthe 危miHarcontinuum
丘om”telr(thechiefexecutivedeterminesthevision)to“co‐create“(everyonepartici-
patesinthedevelopment).Thereisno“onebestway,
”andchoiceisinnuencedbythe
change managementimagem use.Leader‐dominated methodscanberapid,andmay
beinspirational,butarenotconsistentwiththeconceptsofemployeeempowerment
andengagement.M[ostcommentatorssuggestthatco‐creation methods,wheretherole
ofseniorleadersisto“orchestrate“thevision-cra貴ingprocess,are morelikelytoPro-
ducebettervisionsand moresuccessfulchange,Staぜ whoarenotdirectlyresponsible
あrcreatingan organizatiodsvisioncan neverthelessbecomeinvolvedintheprocess,
byhelpingtoshapeseniorleaders’ideas,bytranslatingthecorporatevision 危rthe
membersofagiventeamordePartment,andbydevelopinga丘ontlineteam visionthat
canbetransmitteduptheorganization.
otherapproachestocra貴ingvisionhavebeendescribedasintuitive,analytical,and
benchmarking.lntuitive approachesrely onimagination and creativeimagery:W/hat
are ourpersonaland organizationalpriorities,and whatdo we needto doto work
toward ourdesired 苑ture?Aaanalyticalapproachlinksvisionto purposeandgoals,
usingquestionssuchas:W’hodoweserve?W/hatdowedo?W′heredoweplace most
圏国璽
206
ChaPter6
P”′Po艶d〃d“s′o/?
○foureがorts? HOWdo Weoperationalizethosee”コorts?AbenchmarldngapProachis
mLoree×ternany化)cusedand develoPsvisioninrelationtokeycomPetitors:VVhatdo
ourcompetitorsd‐owen?Howcan Wedobetterthanthem?日[OWshouldWe measure
ourachieVel工lent?\フVhatWiuitbelikeWhenthosestandardshaVebeen met?
Visionscan鏡江貴)rmanyreasons:toosPeci賃c,toovague,toocomP1e×,魚ilstoaddress
knownProblems,detached 丘omthebusiness,unrealistic,and doesnotoaヨera
clear
view ofthefuture,LackofadaPtationtochangingcircumstancescan makeav・slon
obso1ete,contributingto
decisionsthatare notconsistentwith new environmenta1
conditionsandconstraints,Visionsaiso魚ilbecauseof”Visionconisions“-thePresence
oftoo manycomPetingvlslons貴)ranorganization.
互xp超微 動ec鯛耀かz‘”◇〃 げ″z‘′pose の雌 yZSZO′2のo増加Zz傭わ′?〆c加増e.
vveexploredthreekeydebates.First,doesvisiondrivechange,ordoesvlslonemerge
丘omtheorganizationalchangeProcess?Second,doesvlslon contributetoorhinder
the organizationalchange Process? Third,arevisionsattributesofheroicleadersor
heroicorganizations?VVithcomLPeningargumentsonbothsidesofthesedebates,the
answersarenotclear.
Thetraditionalview seesthevisionoftheheroic,charismaticleaderdrivingand
contributingpositivelytothe organizationalchange process,Thereisevidence and
argumenttochallengethatPerspective.Theimportanceofcharismaandvision may
havebeenexaggerated.CharismaticseniorfiguresPerhapscontributelesstosustained
organizationaleぼectivenessthanembeddedvisions,corevalues,andenduringideol-
ogies,Visionsareemergentbecauseitisdi賃icultto articulateaclearimageofthe
futureatthestartofadisruPtivetransFormationalchangeProcess・Visionscanimpede
changeby makingstrongemotionalaPPealstothefutureinsteadofFocusingoncur-
rent
oPerationalproblems
and where
organizational
capabilities are
inadequateto
achievingthevision.
Thechange managermustbeawareofthesedebatesandtensionsandtakethese
considerationsinto accountbeforeembarkingon avision develoPmentProcessata
Particulartime
in
a
specific
conte×t. The weight
ofcommentary, 丘om academic
research and managementconsultants,apPearsto endorsethevalueofarticulating
clear
and
comPelling
vlslons, However,this
perspective
should not
be
taken
あr
granted,and a morecautious,skePtical,criticalaPproachisPerhapsadvisable.The
roleandneedForvisionshouldbeassessedinrelationtoeachsPecificorganizational
changesituation,VVhathasbeene]日当ective貴)roneorganization,givenitshistory,cur-
rentchanenges,and future
aspirations, may notbewhollyappropriate 貸)ranother
organization withadiがerentbackground,adifferentset。fprob1ems,andadifferent
desiredfuture.
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mα“αge′“e′% London:Johnvviley& SonsLtd.
Quinn,R.E.1996.Deep豹α〃ge′DZScover/〃gr庇′eqde内密加配
Quinn,R.E,,andThakor,A.V2018
βz‘sZ′7essRev!ew96(4):78‐85.
leader,ln D!sの′?r!′?′乙のZ!s
Nadler,R,B,Shaw,andA.E.
9.Purposeiseverything.ln
Kounkel,andA.R.Stephan
l998,“?ere〃た奪srosz‘cces帆ばcたの?ge
san Francisco:jossey‐Bass.
Creatingapurpose‐driven organization.嵐αr粥川
Raynor,M.E.i998.Thatvisionthing:Doweneedit?乙o〃gRα〃解 躍mm/〃g31(3):368‐76
Robbins,rl.,andFinley,八α.1997. 予後γ吻の7gedoes′“lyorな 謬り伊 方?訪ねr!vesgo wro刀g
q刀メカolyroz〃αgの′?-α打α麗にceed London:orion・
Rogers,C
Schoemaker,P.1.日,1992.Howtolinkstrategicvisiontocorecapabilities
賜α徹geme“『Rev/ew34(1):67-81,
Shaw,R.B.
architecture.
トladler,R.B
C.2007.窮め〃“”/のα/ZZZO′7s′M伽re“′?grたe屑dde〃のノ〃の77にsげo増加Zz蛸Zo〃〆
NewYork:PaigraveM【acmillan.
1995.Theessenceofdiscontinuouschange:Leadership,identityand
ln D/sco′mmのz‘sc加増e′乙eqd!〃go増αmm『Zo〃〆r′m?帆ormαrZo〃,ed.D.A.
.Shaw,A.E.Waiton,andAssociates(66‐81).SanFrancisco:losserBass.
Symons,j.2006.Thevisionthing.E./eのmng4ge(April):18‐19
Venus,M.,Stam,D.,andvanKnippenberg,D.2019.Visionsofchangeasvlslonsof
continuity.4mde′輝 け Mαmgeme〃rゐzmm/62(3):667‐90.
Sourceofopeningquote官om Tayiorswi賃,https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/change
Chapteropeningsilhouettecredit:FunKeyFactory/Shutterstock
Chapter盤豊熟饗
organぱation DeVe1opmen
t
and Sehse-Makm9
Approaches
Learning objectives
Bytheendofthischapteryoushou-dbeab-eto:
圃翻圏欄間
Appreciatemoreclearlytheorganizati。naIChangeaPproachesunderpinn
in
g
thecoachandinterpreterimagesofmana9ingchange
.
耀霞覇灘藁露顕園
Understandtheorganization Development(OD)approachtochange.
璽璽璽圃
Beawareofextensionsofthe OD approachsuchasAppreciativelnq
uir
y,
Positive organizati。naIScholarship,and Dialogic OD.
E圏圏圏麗
Understandthesense‐makingapproachtochange.
“凶hen『he wor/dchonges
oroundyouo打dwhen/rchonges
ogo′“sryou--w力orusedrobeoそo′/w′nd
′snowoheodw′nd-youhovero/eon′“『
o
rhofond方gu「eourwhottodobecous
e
Comp/O′“′“9′snTostrotegyぞ
282
CI1aPter9
0′耳の7′zα”○〃上)g1’eわ野′77gmの7dSe′7se‐み名α膚′7g4口Proqc力郎
鰹霊園璽LA-ternative APProachesto Managin9
Change
ofthes広imagesofmanagingchange,the mrezq比grand′mm/だrimageshavetheir云o
un-
dationsinthe負eldoforganizationtheory;theother危urimages一αかぎαの;のαcた,′?”1ノZgdrの;
and!′?彫塑だす好一havestrongerあundationsintheorganizationalchangefield.Thischapte
r
and
chapter
lodelvefurtherintothe あundationsofthe危urimagesthatarerootedi
n
theorganizationalchange五eldandexploretheirimplicationsあrhowto manageorganl-
zationalchange,They
are
alsotheFourimagesthat,in various ways,assumethat
t
he
change managerhasanimportantinfluenceonthe waychangeoccursinorganiza
tions.
lncontrast,thefirsttwoimages,mだ如たerand′7zザ粥だ′;haveincommonanassumpti
on
thatchange managersre解かe〆口的er豹α〃方窺わzechange.Thereあre,thischapterandchap-
terloexplorethe危urimagesthatassumethatchange managershaveanactiverole
in
theinitiation,support,andoutcomesoforganizationalchange,Thischapterconsiders
the
化)undationalapproachesassociatedwiththemαc方andZ′”e′Prezerimages;chapterlocon‐
sidersthe化)undationalapproachesassociatedwiththeαZreczorand′7α覇gα『orlmages,
Underpinnedbythe のqc力image,the organization Development(OD)approach
is
one whereitsadherentspresenttheirdevelopmentalprescriptions貴)rachieving
change
asbeingbased,atleasttraditionally,uponacoresetofvalues,onesthatemphasizeth
at
changeshouldbene賃tnotjustorganizationsbutthepeople whostaぜthem.
oD hasP1ayedacentralroleintheorgallizationalchange賃eld食)roverhalfacentury.I
Q
the立2012reviewofoD,BurnesandCooke(p,1396)arguethatit”hasbeen,andarguably,
st皿is,the majorapproachtoorgamZationalchangeacrossthe Western world,andincrea浄
mglyglobally.
”H[owever,asthischapterandchapterlo追ustrate,dif発rentilnages
ofchange
managementareassociated withd獅erentideasaboutwhatsortofapproaches(andtech-
n
iques)shouldbeusedtotrytobringaboutchangewithinorganizations,ltisnotsurprlsmg,
there]主)re,thatoD’slonghistoryhasbeenaccompa1died,丘omt=ヒnetot立ne,byexpressions
ofconcern astoitscontinu血grelevance,leadingsome writerstoraisethe question
o
f
whetherODis“incrisis boththeゐ”mα/〆‐4pp/!edB豹αv卿口/Sc′e′lce[40(4),2004]
and
oの 銃口のめ〃er{46(4),2014]hiwehadspecialissues危cusedonthequestionofoD’songo‐
i
ngrelevance.A1ong‐standmgcriticism ofoDhasbeenthecla無ithatithasbeensidelined
丘omtheconcernsofthebus血esscommunitybecauseofitspreoccupation withhumanistic
valuesratherthanwithotherissuessuchasbus血essstrate勘′(Hornstei誼,2001;Beer,2014),
Approachestomanagゴロdgchangeotherthan OD haveemerged,Forexample,underp=hじned
bythe粥彫塑形Zerimage,thesense-makjbogapproach maintaiロsthatchangeemergesovert節le
andconsistsofaseriesofinterpretiveactivitiesthathelptocreateinpeoplenew meahdbogs
abouttheirorganizationsandaboutthewaysinw超chtheycanoperatedif発rentlyinthe範mre.
頓/e
commence
this
chapterconsideringthe
approaches underpinnedbythe
coαcA
imageandthen moveontotheZ′#e′prezgrimage.Furtherapproachesto managingchange
areaddressedinchapterlo,
霊園 organization Deve-opment《OD}
lnthissection,weconsidertheunderlyingtenetsoftheoDapproachto managingchange
alongwiththeroleoftheoD practitioner,vvethenreview anumberofchallenges
that
havebeendirectedatoDincludingthecontinuingrelevanceofthevaluesunderlyingthe
ChaPter9
0′耳qmzα“の7上杉veわP“7emの7dSe“s抄膚毎左方7g月βProdcたes
283
OD
approach,theuniversalapplicabilityofthesevalues,andtherelevance
ofOD
to
large‐scalechange.
TraditionaーOD Approach:FundamentaIValues
ODasachangeinterventionapproachhasdevelopedovertinleandincorporatedanunl‐
berofdi爺erentperspectives(seetable9.1),eachofwhichisdiscussedinthischaPter,
ln drawingtogetherthecommonthreadsoftraditionalOD,Becな山ard(1969)dePicts
theclassic OD apProachasonethathasthe貨)1lowingcharacteristics:
〃お〃/”““edandinvo1vesasystemーaticdiagnosisofthewho1eorganiZationa1system,
a
plan長)ritsimprovement,andprovisionofadequateresources.
刀解『op げ功eo増加Zzα”o〃iscommittedtothechangeprocess.
万 の〃?s餌 勿のroy/〃g的e功徒”nだ肥ssoftheorganizationtohelpitachieveits mission.
互声/o刀gzerm,tyPicallyta]bLngtWoorthreeyearstoachievee節ectivechange.
C汚α“gZ“gq助力‘d例 の?〆ゎg角αvZorisa化)cusofthechangee爺ort.
五ゆけ彰〃如“αsd/e″刀殻gisimportantasithelpstoidenti~currentbehaViorsand
modificationsthatareneeded.
Gro雌雄 α“〆 だの刀s食)rmthekey化)cus短rchange.
Though
it
is
commonly
presented
as
being
aimed
at
incremental, developmental,
first‐orderchange,otherwritersclaimthatwhatunifiestheODfield,atleasttraditionally,
isanemphasison acoresetofvalues.Thesevaluesbuildupon humanisticpsychology
andemphasizetheimportanceofdevelopingpeoplein work organizationsandhelping
themtoachievesatis態ction(Nicholl,1998a).Threevaluesetsareinvolved:
れ〃“α“Zsrzcydz‘esre1atetoopenness,honesty,andintegrity.
DemocrqzZcl概ね鑑srelatetosocialjustice,fteedom ofchoice,andinvolvement.
Deve/opme“ね却〆z‘esrelatetoauthenticity,gro~砿h,andselfrea員zation(Nicholl,1998c),
a
岬
1940s
十
199os/2000s
2000s/2010S十 Positiv
TABLE
91
TheEvolutionofOrganizationDeveloPment
Approach
Perspec
tive
十
TraditionalOD
1mProveorganizationaーPe汗or『nancethr
andgrouPbehaVioちandaPPiyhumanis
/2000s十
Large-scaーechange
Enablewholeorganizationengageme
individualandgrouplevel.
/2010s十
Appreciativeinquiry
Beginbyfocusingonthebestofthec
thanonitsproblems,
/2010S十
PositiveorganizationaI
Emphasizeinterventionsthatimprove
scholarship
十
DialogicOD
1dentifyandacknowledgedifferent
or
viewsastotheeXistingreality,anden
onthechangeissues,
Large-
rentorganIZ
unlanCO n.
’’
284
ChaPter9
0′耳ロ′?!zm′o′7Del’e/oの′??g′7rα′7dSe′7se…△”化′′7g自愛Proqc方es
H[unlan develoP窟lent, 態irness,OPenness,choice,andthebalancebetween autonomy
andconstraintare粒ndamentaltothesevalues(Burke,1997),ltissaidthatthese
values
Wereradica1and”agutsysetofbe=e]Grinre1ationtothetimeinwhichthey weredeVe1‐
oped;thatis,inthel940sandl950swhenorganizationalhierarchywasdominant,elnpha‐
slzmgauthority,rationality,andeぜiciencyratherthanhumanismandindividuality(Burke,
1997).lnthissense,thetraditionalpracticeofOD hasasits あcuspeople andis
not
necessarily meanttosolely化)cusontheinterestsofmanagementortheprofitability
of
thef立m(Nicholl,1998a).
The OD Practitioller
CentraltothetraditionalOD approachistheroleofthe“OD practitioner
”who may
be
eitherinternalorexternaltotheorganization.AtypicalOD practitionerhelpsto“struc‐
tureactivitiestohelptheorganization memberssolvetheirown problemsandlearnto
dothatbette (FrenchandBell,1995,p,4), Wherethisisbaseduponactionresearch,
itinvolvesavarietyofstepssuchas(Cummingsand Worley,2019):
1.Pro鋭釧7Zde′?『於c研か7,Someoneintheorganizationbecomesawareofwhatheorshe
thinksisaproblem thatneedstobeaddressed,
2. Co′?sz!/rの!0′7w”ゑα′7Qの〃〆”αm○′?e′:TheclientandthepractitionercometogetherWith
thelatterendeavoringtocreateacollaborativedialogue,
3. 辱Zqgの力er粥gα′〆Prリメe′??〆超g打os〆s.1nterviews,observations,surveys,andanalysisof
perおormance data occurto assistinproblem diagnosis,Each ofthesetechniquesis
recognizedasaninterventioninitselfinthesensethatitinvolvesaninteraction with
people,
4,ReedらQc左.Theconsultantprovidestheclientwithrelevantdata,atthesametimepro-
tectingtheidentityofpeople丘om whominFormation wasobtained.
5.ノoZ′7ZDrob/e“?〆ねg′?o瀞浅 Aspartoftheactionresearchprocess,peopleareinvolvedin
considerationofin食)rmationanddiscuss whatitmeansintermsofrequiredchanges.
6.t
ZOZ′?rqczZの7p/mmZ′?g.Thespecificactionsthatneedtobetakenare
identified.
7. C力”′?geqαZo′7s.Theintroduction ofandtransitionto neW techniquesand behaviors
occur,
8. Rz″豹er
αα畝
g‐q抜e“′?g.
outcomes
of
change
are
deter
mined
and
further
actions
identified.
lncoachingpeoplethroughsuchchangeprocesses,Cull・mingsand Worley(2019)argue
thatOD practitionersneedavarietyofskills,including:
1.方7rrαPの筈o〃”/s顔偽.Havingawell‐developedsetofvaluesand
personal
integrityinclud-
ingtheabilitytoretaintheirownhealthinhigh-stressorganizationalsituations,
2.方7Ze′Peiwo′?α/sた”お.Skillsthatareneededto work withgroups,gaintheirtrust,and
”
providethem withcounselingandcoaching,
“
3,Ge刀em/m′7s”/如”o′7s毅〃.lncludingknrowledgeaboutinterventiontechniquestoassist
themindiagnosingproblemsanddesign立1gchangeinterventions,
4, 〇rgq′7ZzのZo′? )eve/qP′7?e″ 物eo′γ.Ensuringthatthey haveacurrentunderstandingof
thespecialistfieldofwhichtheyareapart.
ChaPter9
0増の?!zq“○“ )eve加野me摺餌7dSの?se-A‘”膚′7g月″野川qc乃郎
285
Akeyideaunderpinning manyODinterventionsispsychologist KurtLe「win’sthree-
stepmodelofchange;zメリリだe““ghowtheorganizationoperates,叱 伽g勿gthe
organization
inspecificWays,andthen〆三歩だezZ′?gthechangesintotheoperationsofthe
organization.
【whilesomecritics,inparticularCummingsetal.(2016),havearguedthatthethree-step
modelismoreacreationofLewin’s貸)1lowersthanofLewinhimself,morerecentresearch
byBurnes(2020)hasshownthethree-stepconcepttobewell-embeddedinLewin’swork.]
Howthethree‐step modelofchangerelatestotheactionsoftheOD practitionerisset
outintable9.2.
r
Ln
h
M
嘘
謡
お
TABLE
9.2
C1assicODChangelnterventionProcesses
Sources:AdaPtedftomFrenchandBell(1995)andCummingsandWorley(2019).
CriticismsofOD
AstheapplicationofOD asanapproachto managingchangebecamemorewidespread,
sodidattentiontoitslimitations.EvenadvocatesoftheOD approachbegantoac超lowl-
edgethatthereareproblemsinthefield.Forexample,FrenchandBell(1995)identified
s旗ofthese:
1.ODd所川筋〃sα〃α の〃cepzs. OD mayconsistofsingleor multipleinterventionsover
di版erentperiodsoftime,soestablishingtherelationshipbetween“OD”anditsability
to enhance“organizationale掻ectiveness”is
di菖icult,especially giventhatthe
latter
termitselfalsolacksprecisedefinitions.
2.Z〃ZemdvαZ霞かPro鋭ems.Thisrelatesto whetherthechangethatoccurred Wascaused
bythec加〃geZ川erye〃ZZo〃orqm〃ge げo功erおαoな.
3.Exze摺餌y〆!〆!かproゎをms.Thisisthegeneralizabilityquestion andrelatesto Whether
oD anditstechniquesareappropriatetoallorganizationalsettings.
4.乙αた げ 物eo観 Thereisno comprehensivetheory ofchangeto assistresearchersin
k
llowing whattolookfbrinWhattheystudy.
低
廉
越
P
・
m
m
ODpractition
andinitialdia
286
ChaPter9
0増q′7Zz傭わ′7上加増わ野/77g′7rq′7dSe′7sg粥函葱′7g月Pz7rodc方es
5,Froわた′77s・′vなあ′?7eα栂′“′壇 鰭rmdec角の?ges,UsingPre‐changeandthen Post‐changesur-
Veysto measureattitudinalchangesareProblematicaspeople mayVieWthescaledif
角rently whentheyansweritasecondtime,
6,Fro劫の77s・“的′mm7αsαの7ceqIPProqc力esro だseqr所.Theabnitytousethese
techniques
(hypothesistesting,assessingcause-eぼectrelationships,etc.)isquestionedinrelation
to ODbeingaprocessbasedonactionresearch.
French andBell(1995,P,334)adoptedanoptimisticviewofthissituation,argulng
that“thesedo notaPpeartobeinsurmountable problems
atthistime,although
they
continuetoP1agueresearche]離orts.
“However,otherWriterswerecriticalofsuchoptimism,
pointing
out
thatthe
approachislargelydescriPtive
and PrescriPtive,o賃en 魚ilingto
adequatelyconsidertheinherentlimitationsandunderlyingassumptionsofitsowntech-
niques(oswickandGrant,1996).ODhasbeenpresentedwitharangeofothercriticisms
relatingtotheextenttowhichitdealsadequatelywithissuessuchasleadership,strategic
change,power,andrewardsystems(Cummingsand Worley,2019),Three 鏡rthercriti-
cislnsrelatetothecurrentrelevanceofOD’straditionalvalues,theuniversalityofthose
values,
andthe
abilityofOD to
eng・agein
large‐scale
change, Each oftheseissuesis
addressednext.
CurrentRe-evance of OD’s TraditionaIVa1ues
Despiteitslongevity,orPerhaPsbecauseofit,theissueoftheongomgreleVanceoftheValues
underly血gODcontinuestobeamatterofdebate(see,e,g.,JatロlesonandMarshak,2018),
Gojmgback20十years,prom血entODthoughtleaderwarnerBurke(1997,p.7)ar罫ledthat,
貴)rmanyexperienced OD practitioners,
‘‘theProコ産)ssionhaslostitsway-thatitsvaluesare
nolongersu伍cientlyhonored, muchlessPracticed,andthattheul=relentingemphasison
Bob
Marshak
is
a
very
experienced
and
highly
re‐
gardedODconsu-tant,ForMarshak,oneofthegreat
ODcha=engesisdealing withwhathedescribesas
”coveltProcesses,
”those”powelfulprocessesthatim-
pactorganizationsbutremain
unseen,unspoken,or
unacknowledgedlandwhichiinc1udehiddenagendas,
b-indspots,organizationalpolitics,theelephant
inthe
room,secrethopesandWishes,tacitassumptions,and
unconsciousdynamics“(Marshak,2006,p.xi.).
下o
reducethe
likelihoodthatcoVertprocesses
thwart
an
attempt
to bring
about
or9ani
zationa
l
change, Marshak(2006)identifiesfive”keys“to
dealing withcovertprocesses
inthecontextofan
oDintervention:
1. Creofeoのsycho/ogにo/勿 sofeenWron」men[D
O
Whateveryoucantocreateaclimateoftrustand
respect
where
people
feel
safeto
reveal
their
thoughtsandbeliefs.
5.Adcons′srent′y W′th
e叉Pecrof′ons,Stay Within
the
scopeofy
our
briefas
explained
to
partici-
pantsattheoutsetunlessyouexplicitlyrenegoti-
ateexpectationswiththem.
3.Assumetho士peop/eorefrコメngrhe′rbestPutthe
focusoninquiryratherthanjudgment.
4.Look′“治em′rroにBeseーf‐awaresothatyourbe‐
haviorastheconsultantisdrivenbythe
situation
ofthepeopleyouareworkingWithandnot
your
owncovertnormsandbe-iefs.
2.seekmoVeme“rnore叉posUre.Focusonmovlng
the
situation
forward, not being
judgmental
aboutthe
matterrevealed(i.e,,progress
not
Punishment).
ChaPter9
0′旨立川zq”○“ )g1’e/0脚??emq〃dSe′7sg山毎殻′7g月口Proロメ7es
287
thebottom 血]ehastakenover.
”Thissent中lentwasareactiontothegrowingroleof
some
ODpractitionersasadvisersoncorporaterestructurings,mergersandtakeovers,andsoon,
despitethelackofevidenceofthevaluescoretooDbeingcentraltosuchchanges.
As
aresult,aview あrmedthat“OD haslostsomeofitspower,itspresence,and
perhapsitsperspective“(Burke,1997,p,7).窺leditorofODルロ臨め肥ratthetime,Dave
Nichoil,agreedwithBurke’sgeneralassessment,pointingtohow manyofthevaluesof
ODareCon丘ontationalto manyofthevaluesheldinourorganizations,leadingto“stark
contrasts” between beingrelevantand value‐neutralorbeingvalue-laden and marginal
(Nicholl,1998c).NichollarguedthatODpractitionersneedtoremindthemselves
ofthe
dilemmathey 魚ce,ofassistingbothindividualdevelopmentand organizationaIPer危r-
mance-whichhecharacterizesas“contradictoryelements.
” Bydelvingbackinto OD’s
heritage,Nicholl(1999)suggestedthattheyregaintheirhumilityandpresenttoclients
notcertaintybuteducatedco叩ecture.Finally,heproposedtheneed 危raparadigmshi代
inhowthecorporationisviewedandrebuilt,allowingspacetorecognizethatcorporations
arenotnecessarilyjustinstitutions あrprofitbutsocialinstitutions.
0therOD writershavechallengedmanagersto maketheirorganizationsmLore宣lclusive
(multiplelevelsofinvolvementindecision mak血g),tocreatemutualaccountab道ty(血麺Dg
perlt)rmanceremunerationtoadherencetocorevalues,stakeholders,andcorporatesustai誼-
abiHty),toreinfbrceinterdependence(betweenindividuals,organizations,andthe wider
society),toe×pandnotionsoftinleandspace(suchasconsideringtheimpactofdecisions
fbr魚turegenerations),toensurethewiseuseofnaturalresources(suchasconside
ration
ofrenewableandnonrenewableresources),andtorede賃nethePurposeoftheorganization
intermsofmultiplestakeholders(includingcustomers,stoc肋olders,community,planet,
descendants,organizationalleaders,employees,anddirectors)(Gelinasandlames,1999).
Thevaluingofindusion,opencommunication,coー-
ーaboration,and
empowerment
hascaused
ODto
struggーeinrecentdecadesinthefaceofapercep-
tionthatthesearevaluesfroma“gentler”timeand
lnconsistentwithfiercelycompetitivemarketswhere
onlyrapid
change,driven
bytop‐downedict,
can
givehopeofsurviva-.However,BurnesandCooke
(2012)querythischaracterization ofOD,lnstead
theyask,
‘ぬreweinatimewhentheissueofvalues
hasneverbeenmoreimportant?“Theysuggestthat
manycountriesarestrugglingwiththeimpactofor‐
ganizationsexhibitingunethical,andfinancia1fyor
environmenta-ly
unsustainable,practices.lfthis
is
so,BurnesandCooke(2012,p.1417)argue,OD“with
its
humanist,democraticand ethicalvalues,wide
rangeofpanicipativetoolsandtechniques,and
ex-
perienceinpromotingbehaviorchanges,isidealーy
p1aced..,toplayaleadingro-einthemovementto
amoreethicalandsustainablefuture.
”
Similarly,widelyexperiencedprofessorandcon-
sultant,HarvardBusinessSchoo-’sMikeBeer(2014,
p.61),argues:
VViththecorporatescandalsofthe
pastde-
cade,clearevidencethatwearedoingdam‐
agetoourplanet,andthegreatrecessionof
2008...higherambitionCE0sarereframing
the
purpose
of
their
firm
f
rom
increasing
shareholdervaluetocontributingtoallstake‐
holders..,.Thistrendisopenlngupnewop-
portunitiesforthefie
ld
ofODto
help
these
higher
ambition
ーeaders
to
cre
ate
a better
world.ト{igherambitioncompaniesintegrate
head,heart,andhands.
288
ChaPter9
0増ロ′7′zq”○〃上)g1窄め野川emq′7dSe′7se‐A‘‘”鱈′7g月PProqc力釧
Are OD Values Unlversa1?
onechallengeleveledatODiswhethertheapproach andthevaluesunderpinningit
arerelevant outsideof
the United
States, whereitwas predominantly developed,As
withtheissueofthecontinuingrelevanceofOD values overtime(aspreviouslydis‐
cussed),debateovertheglobalappropriatenessofoDvaluescontinues(see,e.g,,Sorenson
and aeger,2014),
Some advocatesportray OD changevaluesasbeinguniversal, with culturaldiffer…
encesservingas“aveneerwhichcoverscommon 和ndamentalhumanexistence”(B1ake
etal,,2000,p.60),Forexample,B1akeetal.(2000)claimthattheclassic 賜の?αgerZ”/
ror乙eααg′随わノGr彰 丘ameworkdevelopedby RobertB1akeandJane Moutoninthe
l960shasbeenappliedsuccess範1lyin manydi掻erentcountries,ForB1akeetal,(2000,
p,54)this丘amework was“probablythefirstsystematic,comprehensive approachto
organizationalchange
”andhadplayedacentralroleinthedevelopmentofOD.They
arguethatthe
grid
sustains
and
extends
core
oD values
in
seeking
greater
candor,
openness,andtrustin organizations,Thegrid mapssevenleadershipstylesthatvary
intermsoftheiremphasisonpeopleversusresults:controlling,accommodating,status
quo,indifferent,paternalist,opportunist,and
sound-the
latter
style being pre長)rred
inso住もrasitportraysaleadershipstylethatisconcernedForbothresultsand people
(B1akeetal.,2000).
The
gridhasbeen used
as
the basis
for
change
leadership
seminars,helpingto
establishbothindividualawarenessandskills,lnresponsetothequestionofthegrid’s
applicabilityoutsideoftheUnitedStates,theyclaim thatithasbeenusedextensively
・n a variety ofcountries(includingwithin Asia),in partbecauseof“itsabilityto
e鈷ectivelyemployauniversalmodeiofef]℃〉ctive managementandorganiZation deve1一
opmentwithin diversecultures”(B1akeetal.,2000,p,59).Similarly,免rSorenson
and ¥aeger(2014,p.58)theevidence 丘om yearsofapplication ofODin diverse
countries
is
that
national
cultural
values
are
more
akin
to “a
veneerthat
covers
morefundamentalanduniversalneeds,needswhicharereflectedinthefundamental
valuesofOD,
“
HOWever,otheroD advocatesaremorecircumspectabouthow 魚rthe oD
approach
isrelevantacrossculturalboundaries.Forexample,Marshak(1993)contendsthatthere
are 和ndamentally diぼerent assumptions underlying Eastern(Con和cian/Taoist)and
western(Lewinian/oD)viewsoforganizationalchange.Thesedi都erencesareoutlinedin
table9,3.Marshaにs(1993)viewisthat oD practitioners needto view with careany
assumptionstheymayholdthatoD practiceshaveuniversalapP1icability,Whileル1irvis
(2006)recommendsthatoDbecomemoreopentoapluralismofideasbydrawing茸om
bothEasternandv~/esternstylesofthought,Similarly,Fagenson一E1and,Ensher,andBurke
(2004,p,461),basedonthefindingsofaseve距nationstudy,concludethat”oD practi-
tioners
shouldcarefullyconsider dimensions
ofnationalculture when recommending
specificoDinterventions,
“
Engaglngin Large‐Scale Change
oneofthebiggestchallengestothetraditionaloDfieldwasthecriticismthatitwasill
suitedtohandlelarge‐scaleorganizationalchange,TraditionaloDtechniques化)cusedon
ChaPter9
0′耳の7Zz倣わ“Del’どめ力用例?その7dSe〃鰍多崩毎虚′7g月PP化’”〆?es
289
291
TABLE9.3
Lewinian/ODAssumptーons
confucian/下aoistAssumPtions
lsODChange
Cul顔reBound?
・Linear(movementfrompasttopresent
・ Cydical(constantebbandflow)
tofuture)
・Pro9ressive(newstatemoredesirable)
・ Processionaー(harmoniousmovement
fromonestatetoanother)
・ Goaloriented(specificendstateinmind) ・Journeyoriented(cydicalchange,
thereforenoendstate)
・ Basedoncreatingdisequillbrium(
by
. Basedonmaintainingequillbrium
alteringcurrentfieldofforces)
(achievenaturalharmony)
・ P1annedandmanagedbypeople
・ observedandfolーowedbyinvolved
separatefromchangeitseーf(appーication
people(whoconstantlyseekharmony
oftechniquestoachievedesiredends)
withtheiruniverse)
・ Unusual(assumptionofstaticorseml‐
.
・ Usual(assumptionofconstantchange
staticstateoutsideofachangeProcess}
as,intheyi作yangphilosoPhy,each
new
ordercontainsitsownnegation)
rずnonlou
anothe
ourneyo
erefore
umptio
ntf「om
Source:AdaptedfromMarshak(1993).
workillgwithindividualsandgroupdynamicsthroughProcessessuchassurvey篤edback
andteam building.Such methodscameunderattack asbeinginsuぜicienttodealwith
thelarge‐scalechangesneededbyorganizationstocoPewiththehypercompetitivebusi‐
nessworldthatcon丘ontsthem(ManningandBinzagr,1996,p.269).OD wasseenas
“tooslow,tooincrementalandtoo participative
”tobethewayto managechangeata
time when organizationso代en錠cedtheneedto make maiorchangeandtodosowith
sPeed(BurnesandCooke,2012,p,1397).
Asaresultofsuchcriticisms,manyOD practitionersbeganto movetheir恥cus丘om
micro‐organizationalissuesto macro,large‐systemissues,includingaligningchangetothe
strategicneedsoftheorganization(Worleyetai.,1996).Thishasledtothe
development
ofarangeoftechniques
designedto getthe whole
organizationalsystem,or atleast
representativesofdi掻erentstakeholdersofthewholesystem,intoaroom atoneandthe
sametime.
W/holesystem techniquestakeavarietyofあrmsandnames,includingsearchconfer-
ence(seetable9.4),範turesearch,real‐timestrategicchange,worldca発,townhallmeet-
lngs,simu-real, whole‐system
design, OPen‐SPace
technology,ICA strategic
P1anning
Process,particiPative design, 魚st‐cycleFulIParticiPation,large‐scaleinteractive Process,
andappreciative 範turesearch(AXelrod,1992;Bunkerand 用ban,1992,1997;Dannemi-
nerandjacobs,1992;EmeryandPurser,1996;Fuller,GriffinandLudema,2000;Holman,
Devaneand Cody,2007;K1ein,1992;Levineand Mohr,1998),Suchtechniques are
typicallydesignedto workwithuptothousandsofpeopleatonetime.
Thevarioustechniquesdoentaildiぼerences・Sometechniquesassumethat
organiza-
tionaIParticipantscanshaPeandenactboththeirorganizationanditssurroundingenvl‐
ronment;othersarebasedontheassumPtionthattheenvironmentisgiven(althoughits
definingcharacteristicsmayneedtobeactivelyagreedupon)andthatorganizationsand
their
partici
pants
join
together
democratically
to
identi角
aPpropriate
adaPtation
292
ChaPter9
0′旨の7迄鯖め′7Del’〆○変77g′汀の7dSの?se‐み毎顔′7g4口Prod欲es
boardroom withmembersseatedaroundonelarge
ellipticaltable).
Participantssatatsmallroundtables(seating
four),Thepresentersexplainedthepurposeofthe
event
and
the
VVorld
Cafき
process,and
the
first
roundbeganwiththepresentersaskingthepartici-
pants
to
discuss
their
own
experiences
ofreally
good
conversations
and
what
itwasaboutthose
conversationsthatmadethem
”reallygood.
”lnfu-
ture
rounds,presenters
asked
respondentstodis‐
cussquestionssuchas“VVhatcouldMOS1bellkein
fiveyears?”and”VVe’renowfiveyearsinthefuture
andMOS1hasattainedthesegoals.VVhatdidwe
do
togethere’’(JorgensonandSteier,2013,p,396).
Postscript:ReactionstothisuseofVVorld Cafe
diff
ered
between
participants. A1though
severaI
Proponents
of1arge-sca1e
interVention
approaches
are g1owing,sometimes
a1
most
evangelicaLin expoundingtheirbenefits, Weisbord(1992b,pp,9-10)claimsthat
FutureSearchcon元renceoutcomes“canbequitestartling
”andproducerestructured
bureaucratic hierarchiesinWhich”
Peoplepreviouslyinopposition o賃en acttogether
acrosshistoricbarriersinlessthan48hours.
” Results
emerge
“withgreaterspeedand
increasedcommitmentandgreatlyreducedresistancebytherestoftheorganization”
(AXelrod,1992,p.507)enhancing
”innovation,adaptation,andlearning“(AXelrod,
2001,p.22).
However,alongsidetestamentstothesuccessofthesetechniquesaredisagree
ments
regardingboththeoriginoflarge‐scale,whole‐system changetechniquesandtheirlikely
eぼectiVenessinhighlyVolat江eenvironments.some writersdisagreeWiththeVersionof
“OD history
”thatdepictsthefieldashavingmovedovertime丘om a microtoa macro
Focus, They
maintain
that
large‐scale
techniques
haVe
always been
part
ofthe
OD
approachandthat“ODershaveastrongtendencytoneglecttheirpast
”(()olembiewski,
1999,p,5).otherssuchasHerman(2000)maintainthatbecauseoftheneed 危r more
rapidresponses,systemwideculturechangeprogramsarelessrelevanttodaythan more
speciFic,situationalinterVentions
such
as
Virtualteam building and
management
of
宜lergerprocesses,
AJignedwiththiscritiqueistheissueoFthe熊asibilityofsystemwidechangesinan
era when“[t]heoldmode1oftheorganizationasthecenteroFitsuniverse,withitscus‐
tomers,share‐owners,suppliers,etc.rotatingaroundit,isnolongerapplicablein‘new‐era’
organization (Herman,2000,p.110),Asone OD practitionerargues,
“rm notsurethat
‘system widechangeisrea且ypossible,sincetherealsystem ofteninclude[s]anumber
oFstrategic
partners who may neverbuyinto
changesthatfitone company but not
anothe (citedinHerman,2000,p.109).
However,
others
disagree,For OD
consultant Susan Hoberecht
and hercolleagues
(2011),theincreasing centrality ofinterorganizationalalliances and networksinthe
(
JorgensonandSteier(2013)
boardmembersagreedwithonecolーeague’senthu-
siasticresponsethat”thiswasthefirsttimeinalong
timethatwereallytalkedtoeachother“andthat
”maybethisiswhataboard meetin9Cou/dbellke,
“
an
other
respondedrather
ambiguous-y,
“Y;es,this
hasbeengreatbutnowlet’sgetdowntobusiness”
(JorgensonandSteier,2013,p.396),Forsomepeo-
pie,anexperience-ikeVVoridCafeopensupanew
setofpossibilitiesastohowtheycould workwith
eachotherinthefuture;forothersitisdismissedas
a(possiblyinteresting)diversionbeforetheyreturn
to“businessasusual.
“
ChaPter9
0′耳ロ′7′zq“o′7Del’e/oP′77e′””′7dSe′7se‐虜毎膚′?gえ口Proαじ方搭
293
business
world Provides
an oPPortunityfor
change methods With
asystemWide 化)Cus
becauseinsuch anenviion立lentagreaterthaneverPremiumisP1acedonthee鎖ective
oPeratingofinterdePendencies.lnsuch an environment, Hoberechtetal.(2011)argue,
large‐scaleinterventionshaveParticularrelevance.
Foran e]mーPirical.ybasedassessmentofVariousasPectsoftheeaヨectivenessoflarge-
scaleinterventions,seeWorleyetal.(2011).
圃圏 Appreciativelnquiry(AD
Techniques of“inclusion” aPProPriatetolarge‐scale orlarge-grouPinterventiontech‐
niquesledtothem beinglabeledaspartofa new ”engagementParadigm”(AXelrod,
2001,P.25),a“new typeofsocialinnovation“(Bunkerand A1ban,1992,p.473),a
“
Paradigmshir (DannemillerandJacobs,1992,p.497),and“anevolutioninhuman
thought,
vision
and values
uniquely
suited
to
our
awesome
21st
Centurytechnical,
economic,andsocialdilemmas”(weisbord,1992b,P.6).TheyrePresentedashi代from
the
emphasis
on
Problem-solving
and
conflict
management,common to earlier
OD
programs,to aFocusonjointenvisioningofthefuture.Forexample,Fuller, Griぜin,
andLudema(2000,P.31)maintainthatWithaproblem‐solvingapProachcomesthe
assumptionthat“organizing‐is‐a‐problem-to‐be‐solved,
” ○nethatentailsstePssuch as
problem
identification, analysis
ofcauses
and
solutions, and the
development
of
action plans,
Contrarytothislogic,Fulleretal.(2000)pointtotheassumptionsunderlyingthe
APPreciativelnquiry(AI)apProachtochange,whichseekstoidenti~ whatiscurrently
worldngbestandtobuildonthiskロowledgetohelpdevelopand design Whatmightbe
achievedinthefuture.Theyoutlinethetechniqueasinvolving缶urstePs:
・ 上)為のyermgorapPreciatingthebestofwhatiscurrentlypracticed.
・ &厳粛〃gonthis]超owledgetoheIPenvision(ordream)aboutWhatthefuturecouldbe,
・ Des!g形刀gorco‐constructing(throughcollectivedialogue)Whatshouldbe,
. &姻ねZm乃gtheorganization
’sdestinyorfuture.
ThetechniqueisalsodepicteddiagrammaticallyinFigure9.1.AねinustrativesamP1e
ofquestions食)rthis化’ur‐stepprocessisprovidedintable9.5,
lnthesetechniquestheactofParticiPation orinclusionofa widevariety ofvoices
itselfconstitutesachangeintheorganization.The”what”tochangeandthe“how”to
changecannotbeeasilyseparated.
lntheiroutlineofthebene負tsofAPPreciativelnqu江y,Fu且eretal.(2000,P.31)claim
thatit“releasesan outPouringofnew constructiveconversations,
““unleashesaself
sustaininglearningcapacity withintheorganization,
”“createstheconditionsnecessary
貴)rselforganizingtoflourish,
“and“
Providesareservoirofstrength貴)rPositivechange.
”
Thesearenot minorclaims. Certainly,thetechniqueshavebeenrePortedly usedsuc‐
cess鏡1lyin avarietyoforganizationalsettings(Weisbord,1999b).However,whether
these
aPProaches
are
successfu1in
achievingtheiroutcomes
is
diぜicu1tto
estab1ish,
beingbased mosto賃en ontheassertionsoftheirproponentsratherthan onrigorous
researchevidence.
294
ChaPter9
0増の7鳶α!わ′7Del’eわP′77g川口′7dSe′7se-脳劣αた′′7g月βProαc方es
FIGURE9i
Appreciative
lnquiry4-D
Cycle
A爺rmor′VetoP′C
choにe
ReprintedWithpermissionofthepublisher.FromAppreciatiVelnquiry,Copyright2007by
Cooperrider/Whitney,Berrett‐KoehlerPublishers,lnc,,SanFrancisco,CA,川lrightsreserved,
TABLE9.5
AぬmustrativeSampleofAppreciativelnquiry
Questions
Thefo=owingquestionswerepartofanAI-basedoDengagementthatconsultantMeghanaRao(2014,
p.81)carriedoutinaU,S.socialservicesagency.
Stage
Questions
D′scove”ng
“Describeatimewhenyouweremostproudtobeamemberofyourorganization,仇′hat
wasthesituation?ぬ′howasinvolved?戦′hatmadeitaproud moment?”
Dreom
‘‘lmagineyourselfandyourorganizationhavebeenfast‐forwardedbyfiveyears.W′hat
doyouseearoundyou?仇′hatdoesthestructurelooklike?Howhavedientsbeen
created,retained,andexpanded?“
Des′gn
”W′hatwillyouridealorganizationalstructurelooklike?--people,systems?.” 恥′hat
structuresneedtobeinplacefortheorganizationtosustainandemployeestoflourish?”
Desr′ny
“W′hataretheactionitemsthatweneedtocovertocreatetheorganizationofthe
future?W′hatadditionalresourceswiーlbeneeded?“
RoadwayExpress,aNorthAmerican
industria曇and
capabilitiesforsustainedeconomicperf。rrnance.ーn
commercialtransportationcompany,adoptedanAp‐
whatwascal-edtheBreakthrough
LeadershipPro-
preciativelnquiryapproachtochangeitscultureand
gram,150
RoadwayExpress
leaderswentthrough
management,VV。rking with
CaseVVestern
Reserve
persona-
discoveryexercisesinvolving
deve-○pin9
University,thecompanyembarked。namajorlead‐
personal
vision
statements,identifying personal
ership‐training
program
to
deveーop
ski=s
and
strengths
and
weaknesses,developing
personal
ChaPter9
0′8の7迄猫′o″Dew/o脚打e旧館7dSe′7s抄八メロ膚′7g月口夢中qc方es
295
learnlngplanS,andexperimentingWiththeSebackin
theworksetting.Executivecoachesservedtofacili-
tatetheseProcesses.
ln
the
next
phase,David
Cooperrider,
who
co-
founded Appreciative
lnquiry,worked withthem
in
convenlng summits(1arge 9roup meetings),
each
heldovertwodaysandconsistingofacrosssection
ofstakeholders(customers,sta什,suppーiers,andoth-
ers).Theaim ofthesesummitswastoidentifywhat
the“ideal”wasfortheorganizationinrelationtoa
varietyofbusinessissues,Eachsummitwentthrough
thefourA1stages(discovew,dreaming,designing,
andde-ivering)tofaciーitatecooperationandcolーabo‐
ration
throughoutthe
organization,From
2000
to
2004,8,00ORoadwayPeopleexperiencedthispro-
cesswithover70summitsbeingheldinthistime.At
theendofeachsummit,inwhatwasreferredtoas
the“openmicrophone“segment,panicipants”pub-
ーicーypledgedtheircommitmenttoeachotherto
see
thechangesembodiedintheactionplansthroughto
completioげ(Vanoosten,2006,P,712),
Vanoosten(2006)
[両面司 Positive organizationaIScholarshiP(POS)
Dubbedasa“new movementinorganizationalscience,
”Positive organization‐aIScholar‐
ship(Pos)isanumbrellatermthatemergedintheearly200ostoencompassapproaches
such as Appreciativelnquiryandothers,includingpositivepsychologyand com・nunity
psychology(CameronandCaza,2004,p.731).POSdevelopedoutofaviewthatあrmost
ofthehistoryofoD,attentionhadmainlybeenpaidtoidenti夢inginstancesof“negatively
motivated change”(orproblems)in organizationsand designing change programsto
eliminatethem(CameronandMcNaughtan,2014).Followingthislineofargument,think
ingaboutthepositive
aspects
oforganizationallifヒーandbuildingchangeprogramsto
spreadtheseaspectselsewherein organizations--hasbeenrelativelyneglected.
丁lotakeaPosperspectiveinvolveswhatoneofits化〉unders,K1m Cameron,describes
as“fburconnotation (Cameronand McNaughtan,2014,p.447):
1,
‘Adoptingapositivelensrwhichmeansthatwhetheroneisdealingwithcelebrations/
successesoradversity/problems,the節cusison 筆fegivingelements.
”
2.
“Focusingonpositivelydeviantperた)rmance,
”which meansinvestigatingoutcomesthat
arewellinexcessofany normallyexpected perlt)rmance,thatis,outcomesthatare
spectacular,surprlslng,orextraordinary.
3.
”ぬ」ssumingan a日Firmative bias”involvesholdingtheview thatpositivitygeneratesin
individuals,groups,andorganizationsthecapacity化)rgreaterachievements.
4.
“Examining virtuousness”involves
assumingthatall“human
systems” areinclined
toward“thehighestaspirationsofman娘nd.
”
lnlinewiththecoaching metaphor,POScanbedepictedascoaching
organizations
toidentifytheit”bestplays,
”tounderstandthebehaviorsanddynamicsunderlyingthem,
and then
to
work out how to
spread them to
other parts
oftheir“game”(the
organization).
POS hashaditscritics.Fineman(2006,pp.270‐73)raisesfourissuesthatquestion
whetherPOScanreallyliveuptoits“
positive
”alnコs.First,hequestionswhetherwecanreally
agreeonwhichbehaviorsare”
positive.
“W/hatpasses危rbeimgpositivewinvaryindiflerent
296
ChaPter9
0増o′7′zq〃○〃上〉eye加野′77emα〃dSe′7s 脳超膚′7g月口Proqc方榔
enviromments.Fore×amP1e, 血 review血ganumberofresearchsmdies,hePojmtsout
how
‘“courageous,
’‘principled’corporatewhistle‐blowersarealsoreadilyregardedastraitors,reneg‐
i
ngontheunspokencorporatecode(‘viftue’)toneverwashone’sd立ty 血eninpub=c,
“
Second,he(2006,pp,274‐75)questionswhetherthepositivecanbeseparated丑omthe
negativeor whethertheyarereally
“twosidesofthesamecoin,inextricablyweldedand
mutuanyrein危rcing,
“ Forexample:
“Happiness maytriggerah騨dety(‘win my happiness
last?’).Lovecanbemixedwithbitternessandjealousy,山□gercan 元elenerglzlngandexcit-
i
ng.
“By あcusing on positiveexperiences,he maintains,approachessuch as Appreciative
lnquiry魚il“tovaluetheopportunitiesfbrpositivechangethatarepossible丘om
negative
e×periences,suchasembarrassingevents,periodsofanger,a鳶口ety,fear,orshame.
“
Third,he(2006,p,276)pointsto how whatareregarded aspositivebehaviorsand
emotionsdi鐘er,notjustindi掻erentorganizationalenvironmentsbutalsoacrossdi鎖erent
culturalenvironments,Drawingontheworkofwritersonculture,hepointsouthow“[e]
茸usivehope,anenerg・zlngemotioninthe駅/est,isnotasentimentorterm prevalentin
culturesandsub‐culturesinfluencedbyConfucianism andBuddhism.
“
Fourth,he(2006,p.281)suggeststhatthereis“anunarticulateddarksidetopositiveness,
”
Thisoccurswherethereisalackofrecognitionthattherearediflerentinterestsinorganiza-
tionsandthatnotaupeop1erespondWeutoso‐canedpositiveprograms]駄eempowerment
andemotionalmtemgenceorpracticesthatimposea“cultureoffun”mtheworkplace.
These
programs“haveam‐医edoruncertainrecord,andsomecanproducetheveryoppositeofthe
selfactuaロzationand員berationtheyseer(Fineman,2006,p.281),
lnresponsetothesecriticisms,de免ndersofPOSarguethattheilperspectivecomple-
mentsandexpandsratherthanreplacestheperspectiveofthosewho‘‘onlywrestlewiththe
questionofwharswrongin organizations”(Roberts,2006,p,294),lndeed,thosewhose
f
bcusisonthelatterquestion
“mayinadvertentlyignoretheareasofhumannourishingthat
e副iven andcontributevalueto organizations,eveninthe 魚ceofsignificanthuman and
structuralchauenges
“(Roberts,2006,p.295).Posispresentedas“concernedwithunder
standingthemtegrationofpositiveandnegativeconditions,notmerelywithanabsenceof
thenegative
”(Cameron and Caza,2004,p.732).Ratherthanassumethatthereare
no
umversallypositivev立tues,thetaskofP0sisto“discovertheextenttowhichv立tuesand
goodnessareculturauyin”uenced(Roberts,2006,p.298).Roberts(2006)suggeststhat
criticism ofp〇S maybeduetoacombj比ーationofthecriticsnotwantingtostepoutsideof
theircom云ortzone-anapproachto managingchangethatisあcusedonident的mgproblems-
andlackofconsideration貴)rtherelative出稼ncyofPOSasanareaofpractice,
Vvheredoesthisleavethe managerofchange? ontheoneside,proponentsofpO
S
wishto change organizations with“animplicitdesireto enhancethequalityoflif宅貴)r
individualswho workwithinandareafFectedbyorganizations“(Roberts,2006,p,294).
0ntheothersidearecriticalscholarswhodonotlayoutanalternativecalltoaction貴)r
agentsofchangeso muchascautionthemiftheyassumethattheywillbesuccessfulin
the立”
positive“ventures.lnstead,thecriticsofPOSurgePOSadvocatestorecognizehow
underlyingpowerrelationshipsandinterestsinorganizations(andbeyond)willlimittheir
actions;theyalsoareurgedtorecognizethatwhatpassesasbeingpositivewillvaryin
difヂerentcontextsandmaynotbesharedbyall,However,suchcriticalreflectionsdonot
seem to
have
dented,in any signi賃cant way,theincreasing momentumthatthe
POS
movementhasgained,atleastinNorthArnerica.W′hetheritachievesthesamemomen‐
tum outsideoftheUnitedStatesremainstobeseen.
ChaPter9
0増mdzα“の?上}のぞめ鰯??emの7dSの7sgみdq膚′増月口ProQc力es
297
Cameronand MCNaughtan(2014,P,456)reVisitthefindingsofadecadeofaPP且cation
ofPOSideastoorganizationalchangecoveringsuchvariablesasv立tuousPractices(e.g.,
compassion),humanistic values,the meaning短lness ofwork,high-qualityinterpersonal
communication,hoPe,energy,andselfe茸icacy.Theysummarizetheresultsas“Provid【ingl
supportfbrthebenefitsofpositivechangePracticesinreal-world worksettings.
” Quinn
and Cameron(2019)provideasummary,descriPtion,and discussionofpos’distinctive
apProachtoorganizationalchange.
圏麗璽
Dialogic organization DeveloPment
AsOD develoPedthroughitsvarious mani免stations,suchasLarge GrouPlnterventions
and Appreciativelnquiry,it was moving moreand moreaway丘omtheclassic,diagno‐
si driven,aPProachto oD(asdescribedintheinitialsectionsofthischaPter).Gervase
BusheandBob Marshak(2009)characterizedthischangebycontrastingthetraditional
”DiagnosticOD”withwhattheydescribedas“DialogicOD.
”
Busheand Marshak(2009)contrastthecharacteristicsofDiagnosticandDialogicOD.
Wrhereastraditional,orDiagnostic,ODemPhasizesthatanyproblemrequir宣1gchange
could
beaddressedbyf立stapP1yingano団ectivediagnosisofthecircumstancesofthesituation,
DialogicODtreatsrealityassu覇ectivesothatthepriority minterveninginanorganization
wastoidenti8randackdlowledgedi掻erentstakeholders’interpretationsofwhat節rthem
was
“rea亘ty.
”lnParallelwiththis,theroleoftheODconsultantmoved丘om beingtheProvider
ofdata食)r魚ct‐drivendecision ma姫ngtobeingthe魚c江itatorofprocessesthat
encouraged
”conversations”aroundchangeissues(Marshak,2013;BusheandMarshak,2015)(seethe
box“FromtheoriginatorsofDialogicOD,GervaseBusheandBobMarshar).
By2005eachofushadseparatelyconc-udedthat
variousODchange
methodswerebeing
practiced
thatdidn’tfollowthebasicorthodoxiesfoundinOD
textbooks.Aーthough
we
didn’t
realーy know
each
otheratthattime,wedecidedtocollaborateonde-
finingthe
premises
and
practiceswebeーieved
un-
der-ay
approaches
as
disparate
as open
space
下echnology,Appreciative
lnquiry,and
the
Art
of
Hosting,tonameafew,-na2009articleweorlg--
natedthenameandconceptof”DialogicOD,
“based
ontheprinciplethatchangecomesfrom changing
everydayconversations
and
contrasted
itwiththe
foundationalformof○Dwenamed”DiagnosticODP
Laterweaniculated
keyideasderivedfromthe
interpretive
and
complexitysciencesthatleadtoa
DialogicODMindsetandthe”secretsauce”ofingre-
dientsthatincombinationproducetransformationai
change.Thoseingredients,occurringin
no
specific
order,include:disruptionofongoingpatternsofso‐
cialagreementsuchthattheemergenceofnewpat-
ternsoforganizingbecomepossible;introductionof
a”generativeimage,
“forexamples”sro/“ob′edeV1e/-
opme“もthatstimulatesnewthinkingandpossibili‐
tiesnotpreviouslyconsidered;anddevelopmentof
new narrativesthatbecomepartoftheday‐to‐day
conversationsthatguidehow organizationalactors
thinkaboutandrespondtosituations.
VVebelieveDialogicODisespeciaー-ye行ectiveina
VUCA【Volatility,uncertainty,complexity,ambiguity]
world
ofcontinualchange.Giventhoseconditions,
「Com′nueの
298
ChaPter9
0増α′7′zq”○〃 )el’e/○野川e′7!”′7dSe′7sgゐ仏αた′′7g月PProdcみes
insteadoftryingtocontroltheuncontrollable,Dia-
ーogic
OD
asks
leaders
to
enrich
stakeholder
net-
works,promote
open-ended
inquiry and
support
groups
that
self‐generate small
experiments
that
challengeconventionalwisdomandmayーeadtonew
outcomesnotpreviouslyconsidered,Leadersstay
invoーved
by
amplifying
and
embedding
new
ideas
and
practicesthatwork,ln
brief,leaders
become
Centraltothe DialogicOD approachistheviewthat“realchange
’’onlyoccurs
when
m加ーdsetsarealteredandthatthisismーorelikelytooccurthrough
“
generativeconversations”
thanPersuasionby”魚cts,
”Aユtered口lin‐dsetsarerePresentedbychangesattheleveloflan-
guageandassociatedchangesatthelevelofactionstakenbyorgalはization members.
This
changedapproachisalsoassociatedwithmoves丘om(1)seeingchangeasarelative夢 ma企
ageable,P1annable,UillearProcesstoonethatcouldbeunPredictablewith魚r丘om predictable
moves丘omdiagnosistooutcomesand(2)“theshi童丘omf鎚mgaProblemtocultivatinga
system capableofaddressingitsownchauenges”(Holman,2013,P.20)(seetable9,6).
ASOD continuestoevolve,itremainsa maior
“schoolofthought
“asto how organi-
zationalchangeshouldbe managed.AJthough debateseXistasto what貴)rm ofODis
optmlal,貿ラnkasi(2018,P,67)arguesthevirtuesofOD as 危1lows:
Theideaoftopdowncentralisedchangeleadershipisbecoming moreand moreobsolete
aswedevolve丘om monolithicorganizationalstructurestonimbleandagiledecentralised
structures.Theneedofthehourisinvolvingcommunitiesofstakeholders,empowerment
acrossabroadswathoftheorganization,and態CilitatingPoly‐vocalconversationstodeter-
minethescopeandtheprocessofchange.
TABLE9.6
HowDialogicODandDiagnosticODAreDif発rent:BaseAssumptions
DialogicOD DiagnosticOD
什owlわeODprodだ′oner
W′orkingWithPeoP1einaWaythat
Carryingoutdiagnosisofthe
中f7uencesrわe
createsnewawareness,knoW1edge,
organiZationalsituationbefore
orgdn′zo”on
andpossibilities intervening
W物ofimo火esc力onge
EngagingwithstakeholdersinWays
APP1yingknownexPertisetoidentify,
hoppen?
thatdisruptandshiftexistingpatterns
p-an,andmanagethechangeina
ofnorms,beliefsandbehaviorsleading
systematicunfreeze‐change-refreeze
totheemergenceofneWpossibilities sequence
andassociatedcommitments
Zわeconsu′ton『お
AsaninvolvedfacilitatorWhobecomes
Asaneutralfacilitato「whoretainsa
o“en『of′on
partofthesituationbeingchanged
separatenessanddistancefromthose
beingaffected
PrivatecorresPondencefrom Bob Marshaktothe
authors,Marchll,2015,
sponsorsandframersofdialogicprocessesthatstim-
ulateinnovationandinvention,ratherthantryingto
maintainilーusorycontroーasdirectorsormanagersof
plannedchange,
Source:AdaPtedfromMarshak,R.J.2015.MyjoumeyintoDialogicorganizationdeveloPmem.ODPmαmo〃er47(2):4 52(丘omtablel,P.48).
ChaPter9
0増の7な倣わ〃上杉1’do脚778′7rq′7dsの7se-山名α膚′堰月ゑProαc角郎
299
However,nota旦 OD Practitioners aresurethata move官om tDiagnosticl OD to
DialogicODissu茸icienttoPosition OD OPtilnaily食)rbeingableto haveaninnuenCe
onhowchangeinorganizationsis managed.Forexample,both Worley(2014)andBar
tunek and Woodman(2015)arguethatthediagnostic‐dialogicdichotomyisunhelp範l
andthat”Weshouldbeta”dngaboutWhetheracomPrehensiveandsystematicdiagnostic
ODcanbeintegratedwithareallygooddialogicODtocreateapowerfulchange
process
”
(Worley,2014,p.70).For Worley(2014,p.70),thedialogic-diagnosticあcusplacestoo
muchattentionon“ODasProcess
“
;hearguesthat賞)rOD”tocaptureitsfulIPotential
“
practitioners mustcomplementtheirprocessskillswithskillsandknowledge“relatedto
theprinciP1esand 丘ameworksofstrategyandorganization design.
”
Aspartofachangethatinvolvedtheimpーementation
ofanewcustomerrelationship management(CRM)
system,theemployeesofafinancialservicesorgani-
zationwereaskedtorequestcustomerstomakean
appointmentatwhichtheirfinancialsituation
wouーd
bereviewedfreeofcharge.Emp1oyeeswereto
make
this
requestduringthecourse
ofregularover‐the-
countertransactions.However,thetargetednumber
ofappointmentswasnotbeing
reached,and
itap‐
pearedthatthe
barrierwasemployees
notfeeling
confidentaboutmakingtherequiredapproach.
lnresponsethefinancia-institutionarrangedfora
theatrecompanytocraftandpresentaplaythatilーus-
tratedtheconversationsandinteractionsinvo1vedin
the
interface
between
customerand
employee.A
ha-f-daytheatre
workshop
wasthen
conducted
in
which
participating
empーoyees wereinvitedto
ask
questionsoftheactorsandtosuggestchangesto
thescripttomaketheplaymore”realisticrAsecond
workshopfollowedatwhichemployeesvoーunteered
scenariosthatwouldmaketheplayevenmoretypi-
caーofthecustomerinterfacesituationsinwhichthey
wereinvolved.Theemployeesthenjoinedthethe‐
atreactorsinactingoutthero1esintheevolvedscript.
Fo=owingtheworkshops,acoーlectivediscussiontook
placeonproactivecustomerconversations.
Measuresmadefo1ーowingemployeeparticipation
inthetheatreprocessshowedasignificantimprove‐
mentin
both
self‐efficacy
beliefs
andtask
perfor‐
mancecomparedtoa
controlgroupofemployees
whodidnotparticipateinthetheatre.
Badhametal.(2015)
MichaeI
Beer,ProfessorEmeritusatHBs
and
co-
founder
of
consulting
firm
TruePoint
Partners
reflectingon50yearsinOD(Beer,2014)-arguesthat
ODisatacrossroadsintermsofitsabilitytobeinflu-
entia-,AccordingtoBeer,evenifanoDengagement
directlyinvolvesjustoneofthefollowingprocesses,
theODpractitionermustconsiderhowwhattheyare
doingwi1lenhanceallthreeofthefollowin9:
1, Performonce
口/′gnme〃↑. High
performance
that
flows
from
the
organization’s
design,
processes,andcapabilitiesbeingaligned with
itsstrategy
2.Psycho/og′co/
o″gnment
The commitment
of
peoplethatfoーlowsfromalignmentbetweenthe
organization’scultureandhumanisticva-ues
3, copαc′ry六or/eorn′〃gondchonge・Theorganiza-
tionsupporting,onanongoingbasis,honestcon-
versationsonanymattersthatinhibitthefirsttwo
itemsintheーist.
300
ChaPter9
0増の7′zのめ′7)eye/○野77g″rq′7dSの7se粥毎膚′7g月PProqc/だs
1. Lawenforcement
pyle,B,S,,andCangemi,J.2019.
organizational
changeinlawenforcement:Community‐oriented
poーicingastransformationaーleadership,orgo〃′-
zor′onpeve/opmem」oumo/(Winter81‐88,
2. HospitaI
Kamolsiri,P,,下ayko,P,R,M,,and Mu=in,V,2018,
TheimpactofoDinterventionsonhigh‐perform-
ing
teams
in
hospitals.
orgon′zo”on
Deve/op-
menモノou「no/(Summer):51‐74.
3.Smalltomediumenterprises
Stewart,S,,andGapp,R,2017,Thero-eoforgan--
zational
developmentin
understanding
leader-
shiptoachievesustainabilitypracticesinsmallto
medium enterprises,orgon′zo“onDeve/opmenr
ノoumo′{Summer):33-57.
4. Mediaorganization
Birmingham, C.2012, HOW
OD principles
of
changestillmatterinanimpossiblesituation,OD
P「ocf′r′one「44(4):61-64.
園璽震園 Sense‐Makin9
AsdiscussedinchaPter2 he〃7zemreZerimageemPhasizestheroleofthechange
man-
ager
as
a“
manager
of
meaning
”
;thatis,it
emphasizesthat
acore
skillofa change
manageristhecapacityto 丘ame meaning 免rthoseinvolved.Timesofchangecanbe
confusingtothosea鈷ected,andakeyelementofwhatchangemanagersdothroughtheir
variousactionsand communicationslsconveyasenseof‘‘what’sgolngon.
” organiza-
tionalchangeis
a processthatis
”
problematic“interms
ofits
outcomes
”becauseit
underminesandchallenges[People’s]existingschemata,whichserveastheinterpretive
丘amesofre発rencethrough whichto makesenseoftheworlず (Lockettetalり2014),
Changeoften meansthattheleadersofan organizationareseekingtotakeitina
significantlynew directionand/ortohavetheorganization 範nctioninasignificantly
diぼerent manner.Todoso,thesense‐making processislikelytoinvolveasequence
that Mantereandcolleagues(2012)describeasbeginning with “sensebreaking
”(as
theleaderschallengetheappropriatenessofthestatusquo),あ1lowedby
“
sense-giving
“
(their
attemptsto
reshape people
’s understandings
ofthe
direction they should
beheading),
M[anagerslackingselfawarenesswillo賃enconveya messagethatisotherthanthey
would
intend.People
in
organizations
interpret
managers
’actions
sy]mlbolically,and,
TheU.S.Army
Koknke,A,,andGonda,T,2013,Creatingacol-
laborativevirtualcommandcentreamongfour
separate
organizations
in
the United
States
Army.
orgon′zot′on
peve′opmenモ
ノourno/
(Winter):75-92,
Nonprofitorganizations
Gratton,P.C.2018,organizationDevelopment
andstrategicplanningfornon‐profitorganiza-
tions.
orgon′zo”on
Deve′opmenモ
ノourno/
(Summer):27-38,
Mergersand
acquisitions
Marks,M.L.,andMirvis,P.H,2012.ApplyingOD
to
make mergers
and
acquisitions
work, OD
P「ocm′one「44(3):5-12,
8. China
Tang,Y.2018.TheoryS:A Chinesetransforma-
tive
ODframework.orgonizof′on Deve/opmenf
」omno′(Winter):77-98.
ChaPter9
0増αmzα『め″上)eve/o顎77の?rq′7dSe′7s 粥超殻′増月口Proα欲es
301
Particulady where 食)rlnal
co]mmLunicationsleave
ambiguity,suchinterPretations
will
fill
the “meanmg
gaP,
” Good
change
managers
are
likely to
have
a
high level
of
selfawarenessandrecognizethattheircapacitytoprovideanarrativealongthelines
of”what’sgoingon‐and Why?
“-thatis,actingasaninterPreter-can meetaneed・Vvhat
isatstake,accordingtolveroth and Hallencreutz(2015,P.3),isthatsensemakingis
centraltocreating
”thenecessaryawareness,understandingandwilIPowerneededtomake
peoplechange,
“
Drawing onthe/“だめreZerimageofmanaging organizationalchange,KarIVVeick’s
(2000; WeicketaL,2005)sensemaking modelprovidesan alternative apProachto
the ODschool.Weicks(2000)PointofdePartureisto argueagainstthreecommon
changeassumPtions.
Thefirstisthe αssm“prわ〃 ザ!粥川α. Underthisassumption, P1anned,intended
change
is
necessaryto
disruPtthe食)rcesthat
contribute
to
alack
ofchange
in
an
organization sothatthereis
alagbetween
environmentalchange and organizational
adaPtation. HesuggeststhatthecentralrolegiventoinertiaismisP1acedand
results
丘om aFocusonstructureratherthan a 化)cusonthestructuringflowsand Processes
throughwhichorganizationalworkoccurs.AdoptingthelatterPersPectiveleadsoneto
seeorganizationsasbeinginan ongoingstateofaccomP1ishmentandreaccomplish‐
mentwithorganizationalroutinesconstantlyundergoingadjustmentstobetterfitchang‐
ingcircumstances.
Thesecond 餌sm“夢”o“な豹のα蹄q“〆α′α彰edc方α“81ePrりgm′?2Zs“蛇ded However,Veick
(2000)saysthatthisassumPtionisof旗Pitedvaluebecauseit魚江stoactivateWhatheregards
asthe化’urdriversoforganizationalchange.AsoutbLnedinchaPter2,thesedriversare:
・ 4〃卿のめ〃, WherebyPeoP1e remainin motion and mayexPeriment,e.g., withjob
descriPtions
・ Z)Zredzo〃.lncludingbeingabletoimP1ement,innovelways,directedstrategies
・ 月ロメ′ば α『ze〃『わ〃 α〃dz‘〃〆の/〃g.Such asuPdatingknowledgeoftheenvironmentand
reviewingandrewritingorganizationalrequirements
・ Re切ec抗え cα〃dZdZ〃Zem”わ〃. occurs when PeoP1eareencouragedtosPeak outand
engageindialogue,Particularly whenthingsarenotworkingwelI
These
drivers
emerge
f
rom
a
sense-making
PersPective
that
assumes “that
change
engagese鎖ortsto makesense ofeventsthatdon’tfittogether”(weick,2000,P.232).
For Weick,mostProgrammedorintentionalchanges態iltoactivateoneormoreofthese
sense‐makingforcesthatassistindividualsin managingambiguity.
Thethird msm“pzわ〃ZSZぬ班 Qfz‘淫行雀躍78 mosto賃en associated with Kurt Lewin’s
un丘eezing‐changing‐re官eezing
change 危rmula. Un丘eezingisbased
on the view that
organizationssufier丘ominertiaandneedtobe“unfrozen.
” However,
“ifchangeiscon-
tinuousandemergent,thenthesystemisalreadyun丘ozen.Furthere強ortsatunをeezing
could
disruPt whatis
essentially
a comP1ex adaPtive
system thatis
already working
”
(weick,200Q P,235)・1fthereisdeemedtobeineぼectivenessinthesystem,thenhis
Positionisthatthebestchangesequenceisas危1lows:
・ Ereeze.Tbshow WhatisoccurringinthewaythingsarecurrentlyadaPting
・ Rebα超刀ce.ToremoveblockagesintheadaPtiveProcesses
・ けがreeze.℃○enable 和rtheremergentandimprovisationalchangestooccur
302
ChaPter9
0増の7izdr′○〃上)eye/○功77e′7rq′7αSe′7seadq膚′7g月口Proqc/?es
lnthisview oforganizationalchange,changeagentsarethose who arebestableto
identiルhowadaptiveemergentchangesarecurrentlyoccurring,muchofwhicho宣enare
dismissedasnoiseinthesystem.
AsnotedinchaPter2,官omasense‐maidLngperspective,itisuPto managersofchange
“toauthorinterpretationsandlabelsthatcapturethepatternsinthoseadaptivechoices
[andlwithinthe丘ameworkofsensemaking, managementsees whatthe丑ontlinesays
andtellstheworldwhatitmeans“(weick,2000,p.238).Sensema頒ngis“asocialpro-
cessofmeaning construction andreconstructionthrough which managersunderstand,
interpret,and
create
sense 食)rthemselves
and
others
oftheirchanging organizational
contextandsurroundings
”(Rouleauand Balogun,2010,p.955).
ln alandmarkstudyinusingandextendingthesense-ma1ローng 丘ameworktotheman-
agementoforganizationalchange,JeanHelmsMiUs(2003)lookedattheorganizational
changesat NovaScotia Power,alargeelectricalutilitycompanybasedontheeastern
shoreofCanada.From l982to2002,NovaScotiaPowerwentthroughavarietyofmajor
organizationalchanges,includi・ngtheintroduction of:
aculturalchangeProgram
privatization
downsIZ1ng
businessprocessreenglneerlng
strategicbusinessunits
balancedscorecardaccounting
jean HelmsMills(2003)めundthattherewereavarietyofinterpretationswithinthe
organization aboutthesechangeprograms. Drawingonthe workofWeick(2000),she
arguesthatthesedi掻eringsense‐makingactivitiesacrosstheorganization areindicative
oftheimportanceofunderstandingchangeastheaccomplishmentofongoingprocesses
formakingsenseoforganizationalevents,She uses Weicks(2000)eight免aturesofa
sense-makingframeworktoshow howtheyimpactedonunderstandingsoforganizational
changesmthecompany.Shedrawsout丘om each 危aturethej1implications云orchange
managers(seetable9.7).
Similarly,inastudyofdownsizinginTelenor,Norwaysmaintelecom organization,
Bean and 日amilton(2006)pointtothe wayitscorporateleadersused
sense‐making
to丘amechangestothecompanyintermsofmakingitaninnovative,flexible,learning
organization.Afterthe
downslz・ng, while
some
staffacceptedthe
corporate“align-
ment“ 丘ame,others
adopted an “alienated”frame, 危eling marginalizedand 免aring
fortheirjobsecurity.Theresearcherssuggestthat丘amingofchangeis丘agile,with
employees
’interpretationsofsenior managementpronouncementsvarying丘omかの〃e
v可!血筋堰(accepting)to万α〃だ かeαた粥g(chalienging).Thatis,whenthechangeman‐
ageractsas
aninterpreter,thereisno guaranteethatthe manager
’sinterpretations
willnotbecontested.
Asnotedinchapter8onthetopicofresistanceto change,peoplein organizations
canholdverystrongviewsaboutanorganizationincludingwhatit“stands貴)r“andhow
itshouldoperate,andthattheseviews(“mental models“)can makepeopleresistantto
changethattheyseeasinconsistentwiththeseviews.Aねotherwayofexpressingthissame
pointisthatpeopleinorganizationscanbedisinclinedto accept
thechange manager
’s
ChaPter9
orgIqmzα”α7De・’e加野me′7rの7dse′7s凡堪αね′!g自愛Prod所es
303
h
=
h
H
′
、
C
▼
h
=
a
ld
m
滋
廠
m
e
h
a
T
曲
S
F
F
S
Q
O
S
鰍
pーehavetomak
notjustasindMd
lsisconnectedt
emSuchassup
tradeunlons.
e
toavarl
SUpenれSors,
changea
lreSpons
304
ChaPter9
0増mdz口方o′7Del’eお卵’だ′7rの可Se′7se霊蛋q膚′増月PPFDoc方釧
constructionofevents(i,e,,hisorherinterpretation).Asnotedinchapter7on change
communicationstrategies,thecommunicated messageisnotnecessarilythe messageas
understoodbythereceiver.ln regardtotheconstruction ofeventsasprovidedbythe
change manager,itisnotjustthatthere maybesome misunderstanding ofthe“story
”
themanagerisseekゴ鴎gtocommunicate-thestory maybeWellandtrulyunderstood-but
itmaynotbeacceptedas“the 魚ctsofthesituation,
“
Thesense‐makingapproach alertschange managerstothedi爺erent魚cetsthatinflu-
enceinterpretationsofevents,Atthesametime,itisclearthattheseinfluencesareo貴en
deeplyembeddedandlesstangiblethan aC1earsetofstepsthatcanbeFollowed,From
thisperspective,managersofchangeneedtobewhatBO1manandDeal(2017)describe
asmoreartisticthanrational,interpretingexperienceandexpressingitin危rmsthatcan
be免lt,understood,andappreciatedbyothers,
Change
managers
who
are
com危rtable withthese
concepts arelikelyto
findthe
sense‐making 丘ameworkofassistancetotheminexP1oringthe”tangledunderbrush”of
organizationalchange(BoimanandDeal,2017).Atthesametime,theyneedtobemind‐
fuloforganizationallimitations
ontheirsense-ma]口Lngabi口ties,Thispointis 窟ladeby
Balogunandjohnson(2004,p.545)intheirstudyofsense-maklngby middle managers
whenthey
“
questiontheextenttowhichleaderscan managethedevelopmentofchange
recipients
’schemata,particularlyinthelarger,geographicallydispersed,modularizedorga‐
nizationsweare 血creasinglyseeing.
’’
Metropolitan(apseudonym)policedepartmentbe‐
gan
a
change
processthatinvo1ved
an
organiza-
tionalrestructuringinwhichanincreasedshareof
resourceswasa-locatedtopro‐activePolicing(in-
temgencegathering)andtoa modeoforganーz
-ng
thatprioritized
havingthecapacitytorapidlyde-
ploy
police when
and
where
they were
needed.
The
change
managers’narrative
emphasized
the
importance
of
the
need
to
makethese
specific
changessothatthepolicecouldbemore”fーexible“
and
byso
doing
deal
more
effectively with
orga-
nized
crime,which wasdemonstrating
acapacity
tospeedilyform and/ordisbandcriminalteamsto
meetcurrentneeds,
1n
chapter
8, We
窟ーade
the
point
that
the
simple
dichotomy
“managers
lead
change,workersresistchange
”wassimplisticanddidnotserveuswellifwewished
to
have
a
deeper
and
more
useful
understanding
ofresistance
to organizational
change,AsimilarandequallysiIローplisticdichotomyissometimesapP1iedtotherole
Dunfordetal.(2013)
However,theframingoftheneedforchangeasa
matterofneeded
”flexibility“was
notviewedthat
way
by
many
ofthe
police
because
they
experi‐
encedthechangeasinvolvingtheregularturnover
insquadmembership.Thesignificanceofthisexpe-
riencewasthatconsistencyandlongevityofsquad
membershipwereseenbymanypo1iceasvitalele-
ments
in
producing
both deep
knowledge
about
specificareasofcrime(e,9,,armedrobbery)and
deepre1ationsoftrust(betweensquad members),
whichtheysawascentraltoeffectivePO1icing,
ChaPter9
0増の7鳶α“○〃上)eve/○胆??e旧館7αSの7se虜毎膚′7g月口Prodches
305
ofmanagersinregardtosense-makingandsense‐giving,1ntimesofchange,an‐orga-
nization’s managersarecommonlyassumedtobethesense-givers who
contribute.-
o賃entoa majorextent-tothesense‐makingbyemployees.However,thecategoryof
“
manage
canapplyto alargeand diversebodyofpeople, manyofwho]m are not
part
oftheir
organization’s
most
seniorleadershipteam
and notfullyaware
ofall
detailsof“what’sgo・ngon.
” Consequently,insomechangesituations,asubsetofan
organization’s managersarelikelytoseethemselvesas moreontherecelv・ngendof
change ぐchangerecipientず)thanpartoftheteam thatisthearchitectofthechange
(seethebox“Brand Corporation: Where You ‘Sit’lnfluences Your SenseMaking,
Even あrManagerず).
Brand
Corporation,the European
division
of
a
fast‐movingconsumer9oods(FMCG)multinationa-,
announcedthatitwasreorganizinginresponseto
decliningfinancialperformance.Salesandmarket-
ingstrategy,whichhaduptothatpointbeendeter-
mined
at
country
leve1, was
centralized
at
the
Europelevel,withotherfunctions(finance,IT,HR)
tofo1ーow.
Asthe
centraーization
process
continued,mem-
bersoftheUK managementteam
be9antodefine
theirsituationasonein whichtheyhad,ineffect,
become
middle
managers
responsibleforstrategy
implementation,aーesserstatusthantheseniorman-
agersthey
had
been whenthey
hadstrategycre-
ationauthority.Theysawtheirnewroーeasonein
whichtheywererarelyconsultedand wereonthe
recelv-ngendofdecisionsthatwerepredominantly
presentedtothemasfaitaccompli.Theseinterpre‐
tationsofthesituationwereaccompaniedandrein-
forced
by
a
view
thatEuropean
managers
were
largeーyinvisibーe.
This
negative
interpretation
ofthe
change
ex-
pandedtoincludethebeliefthatlocalandnationaー
knowledgeandpracticeswerebeingdevaluedand
thatthe”people‐basedvalues“theysawthemselves
aspracticingpre-changewerenotheldbythoseat
thecenter.FortheUKmanagementteamthismeant
that,inturn,thechange wasdefinedasproducing
an
organization
in which
people were
notconsid-
ered
to
be
important,leading
to
a
disengaged
organization.
Balogunetal.(2015)
lnreviewingthesense-ma糧ng 丘amework,itisclearthatitprovideslessasetof
pre-
scriptions貴)rmanagersofchangeandmoreasetofunderstandingsabouthowtoproceed.
ltacknowledgesthe messinessofchangeandacceptsthatcompetingvoices meanthat
notallintendedoutcomesarelikelytobeachieved. However,criticaltoengagingthese
competingvoicesistheabilitytoshapeandinnuencehowthey makesenseoforganiza-
tionalevents.
風though(asnotedearlierinthischapter)OD hasbeensu翰ecttocritiqueasithas
evolved,thisismuchlessthecase貴)rsense-ma]bLng.Forane×ception,seeSandbergand
Tsoukas(2015).
306
ChaPter9
0増ロ′7′zq〃o″Del’eわの/77g′7『”′7dSの7s抄脳αた′′増月PProdc方釧
“The office”isa
Nordicfirmthatbegan
achange
processasa
resultofan
announcedforthcoming
merger.Aspanofthechangeprocess,thetopman-
agementofTheofficeputalotofeffortintoconvinc-
-ng
staff
that
the current
organization
was
substantia-lyunderperforming
duetobeing
over1y
bureaucraticandasaresultfailingtobetheinnoVa-
tive
organization
that
itwasintended
to
be,The
strategyofThe office was
presented
bytop
man-
agementtostaffasoutdatedandinappropriate,
Thediscrediting
ofthecurrentarrangements
at
Theo作ice-asdescribedabove--providedthebasis
fo「
”sense‐breaking,
”
”Sense‐giving“ occurred
throughtop managementframingthe mergerasa
Wayinwhichthesta什ofThe0fficewouldbecome
partofanewandmuchhigherperformingentity,ca-
pableofoperatin9withaquality,flexibilityandlevel
ofcustomerservicethatTheofficecouldnotdeliver
ihitspresentform,Thissense‐91vlngsucceeded,and
thestaffofTheofficebou9htintothemessage.
1, Change managersshouldtrytoprovidea
cーear
narrativethatarticulatesthewhat,why,andhow
ofaproposedchange,
2. Humans
are
creatures
who
abhor
a
”mean-ng
vacuum”;intheabsenceofcーearcommunication,
theywil-drawconclusions,i.e,,attributemeaning
tofillthevoid,Thisissomethingthatanorganiza‐
tionshouldtrytoavoidatatimeofchangeasall
sorts
of
misconstructions
mighttake
hold
and
makechangemoredifficulttoachieve.
3,There
is
no
guaranteethatchange
managers’
attempts
atsense‐91vlng
will
besuccessful
as
organizationa-membersliveinaworldofmu1ti-
plenarrativesand,regardlessofauthoritystruc‐
tures,the
interpretationbeing
presented
bya
change
manager
need
not have
greater
Managers(incーudingthose-nachange man‐
agementrole)inanor9anizationare“interpret‐
ers“
whetherthey
like
it
or
not.They
cannot
choosetooptoutofhavingthisrole,Theironly
choice
is
how
consciously
orexplicitly
they
playthisrole,Managers’actionshavesymbo1ic
meaningandwillbeinterpreted(byotherorga‐
nizationalmembers)inthisway,lnthisregard
seeExercise9,4.
credibilitythan
other
narratives.For
example,
someorganizationsarecharacterizedbyavery
strong
sense
of
identity,which can
give
the
”whatwestandfor,how wedothings,whatwe
value,
“
an
almost
moral
qualitythatcan
make
organizational members
very
disinclihed
to
“switchnarratives.
“
Unfortunately,complicationsthenarose
inthe
inter‐organizational
negotiations,andthe
merger
wasabruptlycancelledlessthanaweekbeforethe
plannedmergerdate.Theoffice’stopmanagement
presentedthefai-edmergerasagoodoutcomeand
announcedthe
reintroduction
ofastrategyalmost
identicaltotheonetheyhad
beenfol1owingfor
loyears.Thereactionfrom Theofficestaffwas“a
sullenlackofenthusiasm“(Mantereetal.,2012,p.
186),evenasenseofbetrayal.
Thetopmanagementhaddonesucha9oodiob
ofsense‐breaking
and
sense-giving
thatthe
pre-
mergerversionofTheofficehadbeenreframedby
staffasnolongerappropriateoracceptable,andthis
interpretation wasnotchangedjustbecausethe
mergerhadnotproceeded.
BasedonMantereetal,(2012).
ChaPter9
0増α′”zq方○′7上)g1’e/○P′77e′2『α′?dSe′7se-八仏α葱′?g自愛Prodじ/7es
307
EXERCISE
Thisexercise
requires youto
interview two
organization Developmentpractitioners
9l
abouthowtheygoaboutdoing・theirwork.Compareandcontrastthemintermsofthe
只理フorな方り削
fo=owingissues:
豹e月mm
・ theirbackground
乙粥e
・ valuestheyespouse
翻麗覆璽
‐ stepstheysaytheyuseinapproachingaconsu-tingassignment
・
tensionstheyidentifyin workin9asanODpractitioner
・
theirperceptionsofthewaytheODfieldhaschangedandlike-ychangesintothefuture
VVhatgeneralcondusionsdoyoudraw aboutthepracticeofOD?
EXERCIS
91
EXERCISE
Chooseacurrentissueinyourlocaーneighborhood.Thisexercisegetsyoutofigureout
9.2
howyouwoulddesignalarge‐scaーechangeinterventionprograminrelationtothisissue.
Des客川“gq
Giveconsiderationtothefo”owingissues:
Lα増eβcde
・
How manypeople wouーditmakesensetoinvolve?
Czzαねge
‐ Whereand when wouldyouholdit?
五“zerye“zめ“
・
How wouldyouensurethatyouhavearepresentativecrosssampーeofrelevantpeople
intheroom atthesametime?VVhatdatasourceswouldyouneedtoachievethis?
欄圏麹剛
・ Whoarethekeydecision makersinrelationtothisissue? Whatarguments Wilー
you
usetogetthemtoattendthe meeting?
.
How willyoustructuretheagendaofthe meeting?VVhatwould
bethebestWayof
doingthissothatpeople whoattendonthatdayhaveappropriatebuy-intoit?
・
How wouーdyouruntheactualmeeting?
・
軌′hattechnology wou-dyouneedto makeitworkwell?
308 Chapter9 0増口′7izm/o′7DのぞめP′77g′7rq′7dsの7se-崩必”た′′?gゑPProロメ7es
EXERCISE
語「getin2019 wasoneofthelolargestretaiーersintheUnitedStates(Walmaltwasno.1),
9.4
butithashadtodealwithsomedifficulttimes.lnthedecadeto2014,Targersearn-ngs
上ねだりだす!“g
droppedfrom $3,2bi=ionto$1,5bi=ion withnetincomeasapercentageofsalessim‐
豹e
ilar-ydroppingfrom 4‐6 percentto 2 percentduringthisperiod.These were keye1
mentsofthecontextinto which
Brian Cornellarrivedin August2014asTarget’snew
万2Zemrerer-
CEO.Someoftheactionshethentookincluded:
CZzqngeの 1. He madeanimpromptuandincognitovisittoaTargetstorein DaHastotalktocus-
tomers.Notrecognizedbystoreemployeesorcustomers,hesoughtcandidopinions
from shoppers.Thisactionbythe CE0 wasasurprisetoTargetexecutivesbecause
itwasasignificantdeparturefrom pastpractice,Priorto Cornell’sarrival,storevisits
had
occurred-supposedly
as
intelligence-gathering
exercises--butthey
had
been
”meticu-ouslyplannedaffairs,onlylessforma-than,say,apresidentialvisit“Withthe
store managersnotifiedinadvanceand“the‘regularshoppers’handpickedandvet‐
ted“(Wahba,2015,p.86).
2, WhenhefirstarrivedatTargersheadquarters(in Minneapolis),Cornellwasallocated
thenewlyrefurbishedcE○’ssuite,butheinsistedon movingtoasmallerofficeclose
toTarget’sglobaldata
nervecenter.Thelostaffmembersinthiscentermonitored
livefeedsfrom
socia1 media--includin9
Pinterest,Facebook,and
Twitter--andfrom
TV stationsto
-ocate
stories
and
information
on
product
launches,customer
com‐
ments,etc.Thenervecenterstaffwatchedsocial
mediaonlargescreensandused
softwaretoaggregatedataforlateranalysis.
3,
VVith
the
intention
of
putting
pressure
on
Amazon
and
VValmart,Corne= changed
Target’spolicytooneofferingfreeshippingforonlineordersduringtheholidays,a
”decisionthatwas
made
in
a
matterofdays
ratherthanthe
months
itwould
have
takeninthepasで(Wahba,2015,p.88).
4.ltwasnotunusua-forCornelltoaskco=eaguesabouttheir”work-life”balanceand
especial-ytheirworkout
habits.He
encouraged
colleaguestotaketimeforfitness
activitiesand wasn’t“thetypewhoexaltsthe machismoofoutlandishhours”(Wahba,
2015,p,88),
5. Corne=
relaxedthe company’sdresscodeand
ate
inthecompanycafe where
he
mixed withstaff.
6. He movedthecompany’srecruitmentpolicytochangethesituationfrom one where
Targetwas‘‘longpopulatedbylifers”toone making moreeffortto”recruitoutsiders
withfreshideaぎ(Wahba,2015,p,94).
Considerthe
proposition
that
managers’actions
have symbolic
meaning
and
wi=
be
interpreted(byotherorganizationalmembers)inthisway:
1,
VVhat
do
you
see
as
the
symbolism
associated
with Target
CEO
Brian
Corne=’s
actions?
2.lfyouhadbeenaTargetemployee,whatmightyouhaveconcludedaboutthenature
ofthechangehappeninginTarget?
Cose Source
Wahba(2015),
n
“ゴ
の
む
【の
「
の
○
-噂
口
、二NQ
ニヘミ
ー
.[Y隻
雨
、0【ミミ
飛さ
、
ぬき
丸
鱗
飛さ漆
』
ロキ、三崎
心
bb、oo
n
飛”
W
O
の
310
ChaPter9
0′8口′7′zq“o′7Del’e/oP′77e′7rq′7dSe′7se-崩劣qk′′7g自愛iprodc方es
a
l
t
e
.m
g
e
o
P
r
e
バ
ー
gavethem a
languagein whichtointroducechangeforimprovement,Similarly,illumi-
nationofthelocalmeaningofeffectivesupervision,highperformance,and whatconsti-
tutedagooddayatworkgavethose withleadershiprolesconstructsto work withfor
makingimprovementsandthelanguageforintroducingchange.
Managers,and
particularlyfirst‐linesupervisors,wereaskedtousethis
new under-
standinggainedfromthefindingsofthestudy.Theirnew understandingcouldbeused
tointerpretthelocaーmeaningofeffectiveworktocapitalizeonstrengthstoexpandand
developexistinggoodpracticesinordertoswampproblems,thatis,torenderproblems
lesstroubーesomeevenifunsolved,
Thefindingsofthestudyalsocouldbeusedasthebasisforexperiments.Membersof
theso‐calledLeadershipCore下eam wereinstructedtointroducechangeasanexperiment--
something
to
be
tried
and
watched
closely,and
after
a designated
time,if
it
is
not
workingashoped,itcanbestopped.Framingchangesasexperimentsrequiresthinking
throughwhatisexpectedandhowandwhento measuretheresults.Andbyinterpreting
the
possible
results
beforethey happen,all
outcomescan
be
positive,Even
ifthings
don’tgoashoped,whatdoeshappencanyieldlearning.AI1experimentsaresuccesses
atone-eveloranother.
Tom embracedtheframing ofchangeasexper-ment,anditwasprobablyhis most
b.A
reciativeln
uir
ChaPte「9
0増の7!zmわ〃D印可oP′77の7rq′7dSの?se-ルメロ膚′7g月口Prod欲es
311
Additional
Reading
Bunker,B.B.,andA1ban,B.T,2006.“?e 脚′?〆bのた け加増egrozの“筋力αお Crmr!〃g
sy財の打た 豹α万ge!“◇rgo打迄の!α7sα′?〆 の′mm‘“ZZだs.San Francisco,CA:J‐ossey‐Bass.Provides
detai1son methodsusedinlargegroupinterVentionsand multiplecasesstudiesillustrat-
ingthesuccessfuluseoflargegroup methodsinarangeofindustriesandcountries.
Bushe,G,R,,and Marshak,R.1(eds.),2015,D彰/ogco増加Zmz!o“Delだ/opme′7た “le
物eoiγα〃〆″mmceげ『m〃駅α′??”『!om/c加増e.oakland:CA,Berrett-Koehler.Acompre‐
hensiveintroductiontotheeVolvingfieldofDialogicODfromtheoriginatorsofthis
approachto managingorganizationalchange.
Cooperrider,D.L., Whitney,D.,andStavros,i.M.2008.劣Zzeゑ愛野だα煽れ’el“q”!′γ乃α“
booた めr/mαの ザc毎〃解.2nded.San Francisco,CA:Berrett‐Koehler.A detailedguide
totheapplicationofA1,mcludmgrationaleande×amples,from originatorsoftheconcept.
Cummings,T.G‐.,and駅煮orley,C.G.2019.0増α′2迄のわ〃Deve/op′“e′7『α〃〆c角α′7ge.1lthed.
Stab〔lford,CT:CengageLearnimg.Acomprehens~eandclassicteぬbookon DiaきりlosticOD.
Kragヒ,A.,Sparr,J.L,,andpeus,C,2018,Givingand ma頴ngsenseaboutchange:The
backand めrthbetweenleadersandemployees.おげ〃頒qfβ婚姻ess路γc加わ鰯33二71‐87.
Providesa 丘alエーeworkthatidentifiesemP1oyeesense-ma]bLngneedsatdifiョerentpointsin
theorganizationalchangeprocessandtheassociatedleadersense‐glv・ngactivities.
Quinn,R.E.,andCameron,K.S.2019.PositiveorganizationaIScholarshipandagents
ofchange.Rおseqrc方!“ ○増αmz傭わ″α/CI物α“geq“〆上)eveお廃れe′7Z27:31‐7.Focusesonthe
roleofthechangeagentfrom aPositive 0rganizationaIScholarshipperspective.
Roundup
Doyoumodelthechan9ebehavioryou
desire?
VVhose
interests
do
you serve
when
youengageinchange?
ls
your
approach
value‐laden
or
val-
ue-neutra-?
-fvalue‐laden,canyou
ar-
ticu-atewhatthesevaluesare?Areyou
comfortabーewiththem?
VVhatdoyoumeanwhenyoutalkabout
achangebeingsuccessful?VVhatcrite-
riadoyouuse?Dotheyreiatetoorgani-
zationaー
performance?
How
can
you
determinethis?
Arethereotherpeople,inside
orout-
sideyourorganization,whohavediffer-
ing
perspectives
on
such
questions?
VVhat
wouーd
you
say
arethe
criteria
they
L1seto
evaーuatechange?
ーsyour
organizationopentohavingconversa-
tionsaroundthisissue?
lfyou
manage
across
differentcoun-
tries,to
what
extent
have
you
ob‐
served
the
necessity for
different
ways
of
engaging
in organizational
changeinthosecountries?VVhyisthis
thecase?
Canyou
identifydifferentsense-mak-
ingactivitiesgoingonduringorgan-za-
tionalchange?VVhatabilitydoyouhave
to
influence
these?
Do
you exercise
powerinyourattemptstoinfluencethe
interpretations
others
have
ofchange
situations?
VVith
whatsuccess?
VVhat
a「etheimplicationsofthis?
312
ChaPter9
0増の7皮α〃α7‘)eye/○卵77e′7『q′7dSe′78g‐肋函た′′7g月PPmqc/?es
HereisashortsummaryofthekeyPointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丘omthischaPter
inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:
国璽園 4P卿・edのe“?”・edmのノ殆どo増の7Zz研か7αc乃の7geの野oq所踏 切?彼の方刀7′′7g『庇coqc方 伽〆
!〃Zem′セZe“′?7αges げ〃m′7αg“?gc加′?ge.
VVhiletwoofthechangeimages-cqrerq化erand′mr九げび一Presentchange managersas
rece1V1ngratherthaninitiatingChange,theotherFourimages-〆かecrの)coqcね′?のノをのO′;
and/′7rerpだだメーpresentthechangemanagerashavinganactive,asoPPosedtoreactive,
roleinhowchangeoccursinorganizations.Theimageofthechangemanagerasmα疏
isparticularlystrongintheaPProachtochangethathasdevelopedwithwhatisknown
asorganizationDevelopment(OD)anditsderivatives,includingAPPreciativelnquiry
(紅),changeasviewed 丘om withintheperspectiveofPositive organizationalscho1一
arship(POS),and Dialogic oD.Thecoachlinkisthateach ofthese apProaches
involvesencouragingawillingnesstochangeandthedevelopingofchangecaPabilities
inPeoP1e,ratherthansee]bLngtobringaboutchangebytop‐downedict,Theimageof
thechange manageras 粥だの岩ezerlinkscloselyto asense-ma]績ngView oftheroleof
thechange manager
坊7庇富加′7dz庇 0増加!z研か7Del尼定期77e′7『rODJ郷コ野川α飲 め 叱伽解.
UnderPinnedbythe のqcAimage,the organization Development(。D)apProachis
onewhereitsadherentsPresenttheirdevelopmentalprescriptionsForachievingchange
asbeingbased,atleasttraditionally,uPonacoresetofvalues:valuesthatemPhasize
thatchangeshouldbenefitnotjustorganizationsbutthePeoP1e whosta甘them,
βeqnノαだ げexrem′o′7sげZ庇 OD の夢roα所 s.”cヵαs4PPだαのかe力川“/′)ぅPOSカハぞ o増研か
z傭わ′7〆S所o超な占め,の可 D!”わ部COD,
lnchaPter2,wesuggestedthatthecoachimageisa metaPhor食)rthin麺Lngaboutthe
organization DeveloPmentapproach, OD Practitionerscoach organizations
andthe
peopleinthemtowardintentionaloutcomes.Theseoutcomesareshapedbyasetof
valuesthatemPhasizehumanistic,democratic,anddevelopmentalaspirations,1nrecent
times,thesevalueshavebeenplacedunderthemicroscopeintermsoftheiruniversal
apP1icability,inParticularregardingtheiraPplicabilityinanenvironmentthataPPears
to demandradical,notdevelopmentalchange-an
era wherethe bottom linerather
than democraticvaluesaPpearsto haveahigherPriorityforengaginginchange.
ofcourse,theredoesnotnecessarilyhavetobeadichotomouschoicebetweena免cus
on Peopleand a 危cusonthebottom line;one mayleadtotheother. Nevertheless,
adherentstotheOD approach havehadtoreassesshowtheirapProachto managing
changecanbeadaptedtothechangingtimes,
ChaPter
lowiuPickupthisthemeinmoredetail;su甘iceittosaythatWee×Pect
thattheoD aPProachis1ikelytoremainastrongcontender云or managingchangein
thefuture,However,itisalsolikelythatitwillloseitsdistinctive,traditionalcharacter
asitismoldedin di鎖erent ways.Somechanges moveoD moreinthe directionof
deliveringtangible,measurableoutPuts,whileotherssuchasPOSexplicitlyassertthe
imPortanceoforganizationalinterventionsthatimProvethe‘‘humancondition”inways
thatarenotreducibleto“traditionallyPursuedorganizationaloutcomes“suchasProf
itability(Cameronand MCNaughtan,2014),ThisevolutionofoDhasledsomecom‐
mentatorstosuggestthatthereneedstobegreaterrecognitionthatoDisnow not
園霞圏
樹霞圃圃
ChaPter9
6ケgdmz僻め′7上杉ve/○卵77e′7rq′7dSe理解黍〆”膚′7g月口Proqc/だs
313
oneapproachbutapluralityofapproaches.lfso,thengreaterclaritywillbeneeded
inhow ODistalkedabout,including whetherclassicornewerversionsofOD-such
asDialogic OD-arebeingre定rredto whenthetermisbeingused.
1国璽圏 坊可e都殻“〆功esem mαた粥gq刀Proαcた わ 豹α″ge.
lnchapter2,wedepictedthesense-makingapproachtoorganizationalchangeasdraw-
inguponanimageofthechange managerasZ〃彫塑reだzlnthischapter,wehavebeen
abletodelvedeeperintothedi観erentelementsofthisimage,ASHelmsMills’(2003)
studyofNovaScotia Powershowed,thereareanumberofdi鎖erentlevelson which
thechange manageras/′?定めだ『eroperates,each ofwhich requiresattention, Atthe
sametime,thisapproachdoesnotimplythatmasteringeachoftheselevelswillalways
enableintended outcomestobeachieved. Widerfbrces,bothinsideandoutsidethe
organization,wi且ensurethattherewillalwaysbecompeting危rces→vying危raprivileged
placeinprovidingfbrorganizationalmembersaninterpretation of“what’sgo・ng on
here”aswellas“whatneedstogoonhere.
”Theinterpreterimagethere危repointsout
tochangeagentstheneedtohavearealisticviewofwhatcanbeachievedinundergoing
organizational
change. Aュthough
managers
of
change
may
find
the
sense‐making
approachtobemoredifficultgiventhatitislesstangibleintermsof“whatneedsto
bedone,
”itisalsolikelytogiveothermanagerscom危rtinrea茸irmingtheirexperlence
ofthemessinessofchangeandidentificationofnew waysofapproachingit.
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