research

  What is the primary purpose of the study, How were the variables measured, How big was the sample, What were the eligibility requirements of the study, What are the main findings of the article, Did the article provide suggestions for future research? If so, what were they?

a. Hint: We use a ruler to measure the construct (variable) of length. We might use research scale to measure depression. What devise (or instrument) was used to measure the variables?

J Child Fam Stud (2007) 16:321–330
DOI 10.1007/s10826-006-9088-z

ORIGINAL PAPER

An Evaluation of a Parenting Class Curriculum for
Parents of Young Children: Parenting the Strong-Willed
Child

Nicola A. Conners · Mark C. Edwards · April S. Grant

Published online: 5 December 2006
C©

Springer

Science+Business Media, LLC 2006

Abstract Young children with high levels of acting out behaviors present a challenge
for families, caregivers, and the childcare system. The Parenting the Strong-Willed Child
(PSWC) parenting class curriculum program is a 6-week, group based parent education
program designed for parents of children with noncompliance problems (ages 2–8). The
PSWC program was offered at no cost to parents enrolled in 8 Head Start centers, and parents
were invited to participate in a program evaluation study. Seventy-one families enrolled in
the study and completed at least one PSWC session. From pre- to post-test, parents reported
significant improvements in both the frequency and intensity of child behavior problems.
Parents also reported significant reductions in parenting stress, as well as improvements in
their parenting behaviors, including a reduction in the use of lax discipline techniques and
emotional reactivity in the context of discipline encounters. All improvements were sustained
six months later. These preliminary results are encouraging, and point to the need for a more
rigorous, controlled evaluation of the PSWC parenting class curriculum.

Keywords Behavior problems . Parent education . Child intervention . Parenting

Young children who present with high levels of acting out behaviors present a challenge
for families, caregivers, and the childcare system. These children may display a variety
of behaviors, including tantrums, defiance, noncompliance, aggression, and destruction of
property. Studies suggest that anywhere from 7 to 20% of children meet the diagnostic
criteria for oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder. In low-income welfare families
these rates may be as high as 35% (Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1998). Among preschool

N. Conners (�)
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Partners for Inclusive Communities, 2001 Pershing Cir,
Suite 300, North Little Rock, AR 72114, USA
e-mail: connersnicolaa@uams.edu

M. Edwards · A. S. Grant
Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little
Rock, AR, USA

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322 J Child Fam Stud (2007) 16:321–330

children, studies indicate that as many as 13% of children are described by their parents as
difficult to control (Campbell, 1995).

A critical issue with preschool-age children is that without intervention, conduct problems
may progress to a more serious behavioral disorder in later childhood. While many children
‘outgrow’ their problems, there is evidence that many preschool children with conduct
problems, especially those with persistent, multi-faceted, and severe problems, will continue
to have some degree of problems as adolescents and adults. Longitudinal studies, some
beginning with children as young as 2 or 3, suggest that approximately 50% of young
children with disruptive behavior problems will continue to have some form of difficulties
into school age or adolescence (Campbell, 1995; Lavigne et al., 1998; Richman, Stevenson, &
Graham, 1982).

Research has long shown that therapeutic parent management training (PMT) programs
evaluated with clinical populations can produce meaningful changes in child behavior, as
well as perceptions of parents toward their acting-out child (Karoly & Rosenthal, 1977). PMT
programs are some of the most frequently and rigorously studied of the interventions for
conduct-disordered children (Alvarado, Kendall, Beesley, & Lee-Cavaness, 2000; Chambless
et al., 1996). Helping the Noncompliant Child (McMahon & Forehand, 2003) is a PMT
program that has been identified by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
and the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (Alvarado et al., 2000), as a program with the
highest quality of evaluation. In numerous controlled studies conducted by the developers
and independent investigators, HNC was shown to be effective in producing both short and
long term improvements in child behavior (see McMahon & Forehand, 2003 for a review
of research supportive of HNC). PMT programs, as well as HNC, were designed to be
implemented by a trained clinician with individual families with children with identified
conduct problems disordered child (indicated population).

Several parent education programs have adapted the principles and procedures of PMT
programs for use with groups of families with children at-risk for conduct problems (selected
population). Parent education programs can be implemented by a trained paraprofessional
and have the promise of preventing the development of conduct disorders in children with
risk-factors. An abbreviated version of The Incredible Years was evaluated as a group inter-
vention in a setting with children at-risk for conduct problems (Webster-Stratton, Reid, &
Hammond, 2001). The parent education component to this program consisted of 8–9 weekly
meeting (2 hr each session). This program was evaluated to have positive benefits on parent-
child interactions and child behavior. Additional Research is needed to evaluate the effective-
ness of parent education programs adapted from PMT therapeutic interventions with young
children at-risk for behavior problems.

The Parenting the Strong-Willed Child parenting class curriculum (Long & Forehand,
2002a, 2002b) is a 6-week, group based parent education program designed for parents of
children with noncompliance problems (ages 2–8). This parenting class curriculum uses the
book Parenting the Strong Willed Child, which was written for parents, as its guide. The
PSWC program is based on the principles and procedures of the Helping the Noncompli-
ant Child individual therapeutic program. The program teaches parents a series of skills
designed to disrupt coercive interactions by increasing positive attention for good behav-
ior, ignoring minor inappropriate child behavior, providing clear instructions to the child,
and providing appropriate consequences for compliance and noncompliance. The PSWC
program was developed to address the shortage of parent education programs for use with
children at-risk for the development of behavior problems. The developers have conducted
two uncontrolled pilot evaluations of the parenting class curriculum. The first evaluation
(Long & Forehand, 2000) involved 24 parents who participated in the six-week program.

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The second evaluation (Long & Forehand, 2002a, 2002b) involved 54 parents who partici-
pated in the program. Both evaluations found significant decreases in parent reports of child
problem behavior using a modified version of the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory and
high parent satisfaction with the program. However, no independent evaluation has been
conducted.

Head Start, the federally sponsored preschool program for low-income children, provides
an excellent context for implementing parent training programs and other prevention and
early intervention programs (Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1998). Head Start provides an
avenue to reach low-income children and parents, which is important because many of the
family and child risk factors related to behavior problems are present at elevated rates in
low-income families. In a recent study focused on Head Start families, Webster-Stratton and
Hammond (1998) reported that 35% of the families had three or more major family risk
factors (e.g. depression, psychiatric illness, single parenthood), and that more than 40% of
Head Start mothers displayed high rates of harsh or physically negative discipline, which is
also a major risk factor for child behavior problems. Because Head Start uses a comprehensive
approach to foster healthy child development, parent education is an important component
of the program. However, implementing empirically validated parent education programs
can be challenging for Head Start staff that may lack the necessary training or resources.
Leaders in the field have called for a stronger emphasis on the use of validated approaches to
help parents and teachers address the behavioral needs of Head Start children (Yoshikawa &
Zigler, 2000).

The purpose of our study was to assess immediate and short-term effects of the Parenting
the Strong Willed Child program on child behavior, parenting practices, and parenting stress
in a population of families enrolled in Head Start. It was hypothesized that parents who
completed the program would report significant improvements in child behavior, parenting
practices, and parenting stress. In addition, it was hypothesized that parents would report
high satisfaction with the program.

Method

Participants

A total of 71 parents were enrolled in the PSWC program over a two year period. As seen
in Table 1, among the 71 parents that enrolled in the study, most were married (69.6%), and
nearly all had completed high school (86.4%). Half of the parents were Caucasian (50.7%),
while 40.8% were African-American, 4.2% were Hispanic, and the remaining 4.2% were a
mix of other ethnic groups. Less than half of the parents who attended (42.4%) were employed
themselves, though the employment status of the other parent is unknown. On average, the
‘target child’ for the class was 4.8 years old. Of those that enrolled, 63 completed the class,
with completion status defined as attending at least 4 of 6 classes and making up the missed
material (89% retention).

Procedures

From 2002 to 2004, the PSWC parenting class program was marketed to all families (about
200 each year) with children enrolled in one of 8 Head Start centers in a southern state.
The classes were marketed by a full-time parent educator who utilized a variety of strategies
to recruit families, including mailings, flyers, announcements at monthly Head Start parent

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Table 1 Sample description (N = 71)

Gender
Male 52.1%
Female 47.9%

Race
African American 40.8%
White 50.7%
American Indian 1.4%
Hispanic 4.2%
Other 2.8%

Marital status
Married 69.6%
Single 24.6%
Divorced 5.8%

Not enrolled in school 81.8%
Full or part time student 18.2%
Years of education

Less than high school 13.6%
High School or GED 37.9%
Some college 48.5%

Employment
Full-time 21.2%
Part-time 21.2%
Unemployed 48.5%
Other 9.1%

Monthly income
≤ $800 48.1%
$1000–$1500 17.3%
$1550–1950 9.6%
$2000–2500 19.2%
> $2500 5.8%

Average age of child (age of child at start of class) 4.8 years (SD = 1.2)
Parenting Stress Index

Child domain mean score at intake 105.5 (SD = 28.2)
Percent above cutoff on Child domain (score >115) 37.1%
Parent domain mean score at intake 115.1 (SD = 28.6)
Percent above cutoff on parent domain (score >147) 11.9%
Total Stress Domain Mean Score at Intake 220.6 (SD = 52.1)
Percent above cutoff on total stress (score >257) 25.4%

Eyberg child behavior inventory
Mean score intensity scale 115.2 (SD = 6.4)
Percent above intensity clinical cutoff (score >131) 32.9%
Mean score problem scale 11.4 (SD = 8.0)
Percent above problem clinical cutoff (score >14) 36.4%

meetings, referrals from Head Start staff, and personal invitation. The parent educator also
utilized behavioral screening data obtained from teacher and parents to identify families for
recruitment. Once identified, parents were recruited by the parent educator for the PSWC
class, and were invited to participate in the evaluation study. There was no cost for participa-
tion. In order the address time and resource constraints, the classes were offered at different
times, child care was provided, and families received weekly and graduation incentives. To
assist with transportation costs, each family received a $10 gift card for each class attended.

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In addition, in order to address retention, a $30 gift card was provided to each family that
successfully completed the program.

The evaluation of the PSWC parenting class program was part of a larger service project.
The evaluation used a one-group, repeated measures design, with a pre-test, post-test, and
6 month follow-up. An experimental design would have provided a more rigorous evaluation
of the PSWC program; however, the service orientation of the project and budget constraints
precluded this. Informed consent was obtained prior to the first assessment. The pre-test took
place prior to the start of the first parent training session and the post-test took place after
the last session, six weeks later. Intake data was collected from 71 parents, post-test data
from 64 parents. A follow-up visit was planning with the families approximately 6 months
after the end of parent training. Eight families were not time eligible for the 6 month follow-
up visit at the time the study ended. Because of budget constraints, a part-time research
assistant made efforts to locate families primarily by phone, and was unable to engage in
extensive tracking efforts to locate families that could not be reached by phone. Assessments
were completed with 42 of the 63 eligible families (66.6%). The pre- and post-tests took
place at the Head Start Center, while the follow-up assessments took place at whatever
location was most convenient for the families (usually the Head Start center or the home).
A trained research assistant handed out the assessment packets, gave instructions, and was
available to answer questions and assist parents. Most parents completed the paper and pencil
questionnaires on their own; although the research assistant read the questionnaires to two
parents with low literacy levels. Subjects were provided with a $10 gift card as an incentive
for completing each assessment. Data were collected on parents’ personal background,
parenting practices, parenting stress, child’s behavior, and satisfaction with the parent training
sessions.

Measures

Data were collected on parents’ personal background, parenting practices, parenting stress,
child’s behavior, and satisfaction with the parent training sessions:

Eyberg child behavior inventory (ECBI)

The ECBI is a rating scale that assesses the current frequency and severity of disruptive
behaviors, as well as the extent to which parents find the behavior to be a problem. The ECBI
consists of 36 short statements of common behavior problems, and results in two scales:
Intensity Scale and Problem Scale. The Professional Manual provides normative data and
information on the psychometric strength of both instruments. The ECBI has demonstrated
high internal consistency and significant test-retest reliability, as well as convergent and
discriminant validity (Eyberg & Pincus, 1999). In the present study, the intensity domain
yielded a coefficient alpha of .95 and the problem domain an alpha of .91.

The parenting scale

This 30-item rating scale is designed to measure discipline practices in parents of young chil-
dren. In addition to a total score, three scale scores can be computed (laxness, overreactivity,
and verbosity). The Lax Discipline scale measures the extent to which the parents notice, but
do not address misbehavior in their children. The Over-reactivity scale measures emotional
reactivity (raising voice, being upset) in the context of discipline encounters. The Verbosity

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scale assesses the extent to which parents respond to behavior problems with coaxing, beg-
ging, or inappropriately lengthy explanations. All scales have been shown to have acceptable
internal consistency (with alpha coefficients ranging from .63–.84) and test-retest reliability
levels (.79–.83) (Arnold, O’Leary, Wolff, & Acker, 1993). In the present study, the lax scale
yielded a coefficient alpha of .85; the overreactivity scale yielded a coefficient alpha of .84,
and the verbosity scale an alpha of .35. As a result, the verbosity scale was dropped from
further analyses.

Parenting stress index

The PSI is used to gauge the stress a person is currently functioning under as it relates to
parenting. The PSI generates several subscale scores as well as a Child Domain, Parent
Domain, and Total Stress scores. The PSI was normed on a large and diverse sample, and
has been used extensively in studies of at-risk families. Acceptable reliability and validity
information is reported in the manual (Abidin, 1995). In the present study, the child domain
yielded an alpha coefficient of .94, the parent domain an alpha coefficient of .94, and the
total scale an alpha coefficient of .96.

Parent training satisfaction survey

This brief 4 item questionnaire was developed for this project to assess the degree to which
parents are satisfied with the quality of information presented, usefulness of information
presented, and their overall satisfaction with the class. The survey is administered on the last
day of class. Items are rated on a 10 point scale.

Intervention

The Parenting the Strong-Willed Child parenting class curriculum is a group-based parent
education program based on the principles and procedures of the Helping the Noncompliant
Child (McMahon & Forehand, 2003) program, which is a more intensive therapeutic pro-
gram targeting individual families with young children with conduct disorders. The PSWC
parenting class curriculum consists of six two-hour weekly sessions. The format of each class
included didactic instruction, discussion, and role playing. Each class consists of discussion
and modeling of a child management skill and a parenting topic (see Table 2). Parents are
taught five child management skills designed to disrupt coercive interactions by increasing
positive attention for good behavior, ignoring minor inappropriate child behavior, providing
clear instructions to the child, and providing appropriate consequences for compliance and
noncompliance. Parents are encouraged to practice the skills in the home through weekly
homework assignments.

The PSWC parenting class curriculum has a training manual (Long & Forehand, 2002a,
2002b) and a book for parents (Forehand & Long, 2002). The parent educator attended a
one-day training workshop conducted by the developers. Fidelity of the intervention was
maintained through use of the training manual for each class and monthly supervision with
the developer.

Analysis approach

Paired t-tests were used to examine the change in mean scores from the pre-test to the post-
test, and estimated an effect size to assess the magnitude of the change. Second, to assess

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Table 2 Parenting the strong
willed child parenting class
curriculum: skills and topics by
session

Session Topics

1 Understanding strong-willed behavior problems
Does my child have ADHD?
Skill 1: Attending

2 Skill 2: Rewards
Creating a more positive home

3 Skill 3: Ignoring
Improving communication skills
Helping your child solve problems with peers

4 Skill 4: Giving directions
Developing more patience

5 Skill 5: Time-out
Building positive self-esteem

6 Integrating parenting/behavior change skills
Addressing specific behavior problems

how well the initial changes were sustained, we used paired t-tests to assess the change from
the post-test to the 6 month follow-up (though not all families were eligible for follow-up at
the time the study ended). For the second analysis, we hope to find that were no differences
(that is, that the initial improvement was sustained). Finally, we used the recommended
cut-off scores on the Eyberg to determine whether the percentage of children with clinically
elevated problems was reduced over time.

Results

Child behavior

As shown in Table 2, from pre- to post-test, parents reported significant improvement in
their children’s behavior problems as reported on the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, both
in terms of the number of problems, t(54) = 3.03, p = .004, and the intensity of those
problems, t(59) = 4.96, p < .001. The effect size values for the change in both the problem (d = .52) and intensity (d = .42) scales from the pre- to post-test suggest a ‘medium’ sized effect (Cohen, 1988). Those results were sustained six months later, as there was no significant change in scores from the post-test to the six-month follow-up. Among children with a behavior problem score in the ‘clinical problems’ range at the pre-test, 75% (15/20) moved below the clinical range by the time of the post-test, χ2 (1, N = 54) = 7.5, p = .006.

Parenting behavior

From pre- to post-test parents reported improvements in their own parenting behaviors,
reporting significantly less use of lax or permissive strategies, t(60) = 4.8, p < .001, and less emotional reactivity in the context of discipline encounters, t(60) = 4.0, p < .001. The effect size values suggest a ‘medium’ size effect for change in scores on the Lax Discipline scale (d = .46), and a ‘medium’ to ‘large’ size effect (d = .67) for the Over-reactivity scale (Cohen, 1988). These results were sustained six months later, as there were no significant changes in scores for the post-test to the six-month follow-up assessment.

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Table 3 Mean scores on parent and child outcome measures

Short term change (N = 61) Six -month change (N = 40)
Pre-Test Post-Test Post-Test 6 Month Follow-up

Eyberg problem
scale

11.9 (SD = 7.9) 8.6∗∗ (SD = 8.1) 8.0 (SD = 8.0) 6.6 (SD = 6.5)

Eyberg intensity
scale

115.7 (SD = 34.1) 99.2∗∗ (SD = 29.5) 99.7 (SD = 24.9) 99.0 (SD = 28.7)

Parenting scale—
over-reactivity

28.6 (SD = 11.1) 23.8∗∗ (SD = 9.6) 25.0 (SD = 9.2) 25.8 (SD = 8.1)

Parenting Scale—lax 31.8 (SD = 11.6) 24.5∗∗ (SD = 10.3) 24.8 (SD = 10.0) 25.3 (SD = 9.3)
Parenting

Stress—total score
221.0 (SD = 51.0) 212.4 (SD = 45.5) 212.5 (SD = 47.2) 208.3 (SD = 48.0)

∗p < .05; ∗∗p < .01.

Parenting stress

As seen in Table 3, there was a marginally significant trend toward improvement in total
parenting stress from pre-test to post-test, t(60) = 1.9, p = .06. The effect size value for
the change in total stress (d = .18) suggests the effect was ‘small’ (Cohen, 1988). For total
stress, the change in scores from the post-test to the six-month follow-up was non-significant.
There were no significant changes in scores on the Child Domain or Parent Domain.

Satisfaction with training

Parents seemed very satisfied with the classes, rating the overall quality of the classes are
either ‘good’ (48.3%) or excellent (51.7%). Similarly they ranked the usefulness of the classes
as either good (38%) or excellent (58.6%). Over half of parents (62.1%) rated information
given in classes as being excellent while all others ranked information as good.

Discussion

The results of our study provide preliminary support for the short-term effectiveness of
the PSWC parenting class curriculum in improving child behavior and parenting practices.
Parents who completed the program showed moderate improvement in self-reported child
behavior. Parents also reported at least moderate improvement in parenting practices (i.e.,
less reactive and less lax). Only small improvements were seen in self-reported parenting
stress. Improvements were sustained up to six months following intervention. In addition,
support was shown for the social validity of the PSWC parenting class curriculum, with
reports of high satisfaction with the program.

The results of our study should be considered preliminary due to limitations in the study
design. Although the parents self-reported improvements, the absence of an appropriate
comparison group precludes attributing those improvements to the PSWC program. Such
factors as time and measurement bias are potential threats to the internal validity of the study.
In addition, the attrition at the six-month follow-up assessment was higher than optimal.
However, the results of this study do suggest that the PSWC parenting class curriculum
shows promise as a program to prevent the development of conduct problems in children
at-risk for behavior problems. The relatively brief length of the PSWC parenting class

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curriculum has the potential to increase accessibility for preventative interventions due to
the ease of implementation and dissemination relative to programs of longer duration or
clinical intervention. This study showed that parents from a selected population can be
highly satisfied with the PSWC parenting class curriculum.

With the relatively high rate of behavior problems in the preschool population, there
is a need for effective prevention programs that can be widely disseminated. However,
community-based implementation of effectiveness-based programs presents many chal-
lenges. Dedicated resources are needed to effectively implement such programs, including
resources to develop and implement a social marketing plan to recruit families into the
program and inclusion of strategies to address the time and resource constraints that present
barriers to parental attendance. This study demonstrated that with appropriate marketing ef-
forts and incentives, parents of at-risk children can be recruited and retained in a multi-session
parent education class at a reasonable rate.

Additional research using an experimental design and additional measures of outcome not
dependent on parental report are needed to validate the PSWC parenting class curriculum.
In addition, future studies will need to include a sample size sufficient to investigate child
or family characteristics associated retention and improved outcomes. Furthermore, the
PSWC parenting class curriculum is a behavioral, skills oriented program, similar to The
Incredible Years program. Future research should compare such behavioral programs with
other programs which focus on cognitive variables.

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